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The use of high‐resolution silicone moulds for documenting bone surface modifications, such as cut marks, is common. However, it has not been evaluated whether moulding can affect the originals. In this work, the modification level derived from several moulding–demoulding processes on an experimental sample of cut marks has been characterised using geometric Morphometrics. It has been shown that moulds influence the morphology of cut marks, reducing their variability, and making the sample more homogeneous. These modifications do not affect the identification of cut marks, but if not considered, may have an effect on more specialised studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies have been made of the specific importance of waterfowl as food in the Baltic Sea during the late medieval and early modern period. This study shows the seasonal importance of water birds to island and coastal inhabitants living in the middle of the Baltic Sea during the late medieval and early modern periods (ca. CE 1400–1700) and practical implementations for interpretation of cut and chop marks. The paper is based on a bird bone assemblage retrieved from a remote ecclesial site on the island group of Kökar, which is part of the Åland Islands, as well as historical documents and local specialist knowledge. The site was established by Franciscan friars somewhere in the mid‐15th century. Documents indicate that the friars had landownership, income from taxing nearby fisheries, and the right to seal tithe. These assets were taken over by the crown in the mid‐16th century due to the Reformation and a parish church was established on the same site after the friary was dissolved. The bone assemblages from the site include birds, mammals, and fish. The material shows a relatively small number of chicken bones in relation to waterfowl, allowing one to look closer into the structural food economy around water birds for the area. The bones also show several cut and chop marks, which have been analyzed to explore the possible processing of these birds. The results show that fowling was concentrated to a couple of species most likely during spring when these species were abundant. The placement of the cut and chop marks indicates that a large number of birds were likely processed at the same time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As forensic anthropologists play a larger role in post-mortem examinations, the examination and interpretation of skeletal trauma resulting from sharp, blunt, projectile, and thermal injuries have become of critical importance and may assist in medicolegal death investigations. Although there is a plethora of research on sharp force trauma on bone, at present, there is little research regarding the striations produced by large bladed weapons on bone, whether those striations are weapon-specific, or whether they are the result of sharpening materials and methods. To test whether striations are weapon type specific, this study aimed to examine if different sharpening materials and methods produced different striations on the kerf walls of cut marks on bone produced by machetes. Or, if they do produce the previously identified ‘rolling hill’ striation pattern. Four factory machetes sharpened by the same manufacturer were re-sharpened using a wet stone, a bastard file, and a coarse and medium-grained machine grinder. The bones and casts were subjected to both macro and micro analyses, and the results identified clear differences in the shape of striation ridges and troughs, indicating that striation patterns are not weapon type-specific. The study's findings have opened up a new area of research into weapon types and the analysis of associated striation patterns and may aid in the identification of weapon types and the materials used for maintenance or sharpening, potentially offering additional evidentiary evidence.

Toward the end of the Pleistocene, the world experienced a mass extinction of megafauna. In North America these included its proboscideans—the mammoths and mastodons. Researchers in conservation biology, paleontology, and archaeology have debated the role played by human predation in these extinctions. They point to traces of human butchery, such as cut marks and other bone surface modifications (BSM), as evidence of human-animal interactions—including predation and scavenging, between early Americans and proboscideans. However, others have challenged the validity of the butchery evidence observed on several proboscidean assemblages, largely due to questions of qualitative determination of the agent responsible for creating BSM. This study employs a statistical technique that relies on three-dimensional (3D) imaging data and 3D geometric morphometrics to determine the origin of the BSM observed on the skeletal remains of the Bowser Road mastodon (BR mastodon), excavated in Middletown, New York. These techniques have been shown to have high accuracy in identifying and distinguishing among different types of BSM. To better characterize the BSM on the BR mastodon, we compared them quantitatively to experimental BSM resulting from a stone tool chopping experiment using "Arnold," the force-calibrated chopper. This study suggests that BSM on the BR mastodon are not consistent with the BSM generated by the experimental chopper. Future controlled experiments will compare other types of BSM to those on BR. This research contributes to continued efforts to decrease the uncertainty surrounding human-megafauna associations at the level of the archaeological site and faunal assemblage—specifically that of the BR mastodon assemblage. Consequently, we also contribute to the dialogue surrounding the character of the human-animal interactions between early Americans and Late Pleistocene megafauna, and the role of human foraging behavior in the latter's extinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how environmental variables, such as temperature and rainfall, affect previously induced cut marks on burnt bones. This research used non-serrated and serrated blade knives to inflict trauma on Sus scrofa ribs (n = 240). The bones were later burnt and left for 1 month in a taphonomic experimental facility. Qualitative and quantitative examinations were conducted using macroscopic and microscopic techniques to assess specific characteristics of the cut marks. Any changes to the dimension and morphology of the cut marks as well as their level of fragmentation were recorded. This study has led to three important outcomes: (1) identification of pre-existing cut marks is possible in reconstructed burnt bone fragments; (2) cut marks from different types of knife blades showed dissimilar responses to heat and the environment; and (3) specific environmental variables affect burnt bone fragmentation. These results have implications for trauma analysis on burnt remains in forensic anthropology casework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe fossils of a new species of fallow deer, Dama celiae. It is the end member of the lineage Dama farnetensis–D. vallonnetensis–D. roberti–D. celiae, which reduced the number of points of the antler from four to two, while the parallel lineage leading to the living fallow deer evolved more complex and palmate antlers. The fossils are from localities Pedro Jaro I and Orcasitas in the + 25–30-m terrace of the Manzanares river, which is correlated to MIS9 (337–300 ka) and which also yielded fossils of Megaloceros matritensis, a recently named species, end member of a lineage that survived longer than previously believed. A younger terrace of the Manzanares yielded remains of Haploidoceros, a rare deer known from two older localities in southern France and one younger locality in Spain. So many rare deer species in this valley indicates either endemism and a very special environment or that the record of fossil deer is much less known than generally assumed. Until recently, the European Middle Pleistocene record of deer had only one middle-sized species at a time. Now, it appears that there were up to three contemporaneous species of the size of a fallow deer. Acheulean lithic assemblages have been documented from the same sites as Dama celiae. This species was contemporaneous to Neanderthals with Acheulean culture. Cut marks suggest that it was consumed by them and probably was hunted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently the incorporation of artificial intelligence has allowed the development of valuable methodological advances in taphonomy. Some studies have achieved great precision in identifying the carnivore that produced tooth marks. Additionally, other works focused on human activity have managed to specify what type of tool or raw material was used in the filleting processes identified at the sites. Through the use of geometric morphometrics and machine learning techniques, the present study intends to analyze the cut marks of the Ulaca oppidum (Solosancho, Ávila, Spain) in order to identify the type of tools used during carcass modification. Although the Ulaca oppidum is an Iron Age site, the results suggest that most of the cut marks were produced with flint tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Phacochères site (formerly known as Les Allobroges) is a small ravine belonging to a karst system in northern Algeria. The rescue excavations conducted in 1960s at this site have yielded an exceptionally rich assemblage of vertebrates associated with Aterian stone tools. These faunal fossils collected in sandy clay levels are characteristic of the North African Upper Pleistocene and they represent a remarkable model for understanding the structure of prehistoric mammalian associations, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and past habitat diversity. Based on biochronological and palaeoenvironmental data, the assemblage is attributed to Marine Isotopic Stage 5 (MIS 5) defined by a forest and grassland ecosystem. This paper reports the results of an analysis of the modifications of this faunal assemblage produced by human and carnivore activity. It suggests that the Aterian occupants of the site preferentially oriented their hunting towards large prey such as buffalo and aurochs and that they were able to compete with other carnivore predators. Nevertheless, the assemblage represents a palimpsest accumulated by different predators, both human and carnivore, that results from events that overlapped with brief human occupations of the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fluvial deposits of the Manzanares and Jarama rivers present one of the largest concentrations of lithic and faunal remains of Pleistocene sites in Europe. In the Manzanares River close to the confluence of the Jarama River, the stepped terrace system disappears and gives way to the Complex Terrace of Butarque (CTB), where the sites of Santa Elena and Oxígeno are located. Different numerical dates obtained from the visible CTB’s bottom suggest that it was deposited during the MIS 6 or even MIS 7. This paper provides the first taphonomic and palaeoecological interpretation of both collections. A total of 445 fossil elements have been recorded in Oxígeno. The most represented are cranial fragments of Elephas sp. About Santa Elena, 130 fossil elements have been recorded. The best represented are fragments of Bos/Bison sp. horns and Elephas sp. tusks. The taphonomic processes identified at both sites bring to light a complex taphonomic history. The incidence of processes related to fluvial transport is higher in Oxígeno than in Santa Elena. Besides, dismemberment cut marks have been identified exclusively on the humerus of Bos primigenius in Santa Elena. Several tooth marks from carnivores have been recorded: small pits and scores at Oxígeno as well as pits and furrowing on Bos primigenius and Megaloceros sp. bones from Santa Elena. The faunal association depict an open landscape of wet meadows with herbaceous vegetation adjacent to riparian wood habitats associated with the Manzanares alluvial plain, where hominids and predators competed to some unknown extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some researchers using traditional taphonomic criteria (groove shape and presence/absence of microstriations) have cast some doubts about the potential equifinality presented by crocodile tooth marks and stone tool butchery cut marks. Other researchers have argued that multivariate methods can efficiently separate both types of marks. Differentiating both taphonomic agents is crucial for determining the earliest evidence of carcass processing by hominins. Here, we use an updated machine learning approach (discarding artificially bootstrapping the original imbalanced samples) to show that microscopic features shaped as categorical variables, corresponding to intrinsic properties of mark structure, can accurately discriminate both types of bone modifications. We also implement new deep-learning methods that objectively achieve the highest accuracy in differentiating cut marks from crocodile tooth scores (99% of testing sets). The present study shows that there are precise ways of differentiating both taphonomic agents, and this invites taphonomists to apply them to controversial paleontological and archaeological specimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Riparo Dalmeri is an Epigravettian high altitude rock shelter, seasonally occupied for specialized ibex hunting. Its occupation pattern indicates the mobility of human groups from the lowlands to the mountains, in order to exploit a territory which is inaccessible during the winter. This work presents the results of the taphonomic study carried out on the bird bone assemblages from Riparo Dalmeri, where birds play a secondary role as an economic resource, when compared to the intense seasonal exploitation of ibex. Despite its small size, the bird bone assemblage still provides valuable ecological information as well as information about anthropic traces connected with food exploitation and other resources. The most common human modifications detected on the bird bones are those related to butchery: stone tool cut-marks, fresh bone fracture, peeling, crushing, wrenching, and, more rarely, notches or chop-marks. Localized burning traces have also been detected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detailed information on skeletal trauma analysis of burned bone is important to ascertain the manner and cause of death in forensic casework. This research used three different knife types, one with a non-serrated blade, one a fine-serrated blade, and one a coarse-serrated blade, to inflict trauma to manually macerated Sus scrofa ribs (n = 240), and these ribs were later exposed to heat. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were conducted using macroscopic and microscopic techniques to assess specific characteristics of the cut marks. Differences in cut mark dimension and morphology of the ribs were investigated. After heat exposure, the cut marks on the rib samples remained recognisable and did not alter considerably. A level of dimensional and morphological preservation was reliant on the cutting action and the features of the knife blade as well as surrounding bone injury. The cut marks inflicted by the non-serrated blade remained recognisable despite exposure to the burning process. However, the cut marks inflicted by the coarse-serrated blade were likely to change significantly when exposed to heat. This study leads to two important results: (1) identification of pre-existing cut marks prior to heat exposure is possible in reconstructed burned bone fragments, and (2) cut marks from different types of knife blades showed dissimilar responses to heat. The outcomes obtained in this study stressed the need to adopt great care with the effects of heat on skeletal trauma analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knife cut marks have been extensively studied in forensic literature, and the results have been beneficial in identifying both the cut mark and implement type on bone. For this study, an assessment in differentiating knife cut marks has been attempted by using sword cut mark characteristics. In addition, a flowchart was created to assist in interpreting such marks. Knives of different serrations (non-serrated, macro- and micro-serrated) were used to inflict cut marks on pig ribs with a forward and backward stab thrust. The analysis revealed that some traits adapted from previous studies applied to knife cut marks and that non-serrated and serrated marks could be distinguished accurately using the flowchart. The distinction between different types of serrated blades was not as successful. However, results show that further research and development of the flowchart can be invaluable in similar analyses., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Over the last few decades, several types of evidence such as presence of hominin remains, lithic assemblages, and bones with anthropogenic surface modifications have demonstrated that early human communities inhabited the European subcontinent prior to the Jaramillo Subchron (1.07–0.98 Ma). While most studies have focused primarily on early European lithic technologies and raw material management, relatively little is known about food procurement strategies. While there is some evidence showing access to meat and other animal-based food resources, their mode of acquisition and associated butchery processes are still poorly understood. This paper presents a taphonomic and zooarchaeological analysis of the Fuente Nueva-3 (FN3) (Guadix-Baza, Spain) faunal assemblage, providing a more in-depth understanding of early hominin subsistence strategies in Europe. The present results show that hominins had access to the meat and marrow of a wide range of animal taxa, including elephants, hippopotami, and small- and medium-sized animals. At the same time, evidence of carnivore activity at the site suggests that these communities likely faced some degree of competition from large predators when acquiring and processing carcasses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, several studies have significantly changed our knowledge concerning the use of birds by Neanderthals. However, what remains to be clarified is the geographical and chronological variability of this human behaviour. The present case study provides new information on this topic/debate. The Grotte Vaufrey was discovered during the 1930s and was excavated during different periods. Work carried out by J.-P. Rigaud during the 1980s motivated many multidisciplinary studies in the cave, but accurate studies were not focused on avian remains. In this work, we provide new data on the bird remains from layer VIII (MIS 7), which is the richest among all the sequences and which has an important Mousterian component. Corvids are predominant in the assemblage and are associated with medium-sized birds and small Passeriformes, among others. Most of the remains present modern fractures, which hinder taphonomic interpretation. However, some alterations associated with raptor or mammalian carnivore activities, together with the anatomical representation and age profile, suggest a non-human accumulation of the majority of the bird remains, especially in the case of corvids that naturally died in the cave. However, at least some bones show evidence of anthropic activity, suggesting the occasional use of large- and medium-sized birds by human populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

WF16 is an early Neolithic settlement in southern Jordan with a large bird bone assemblage (Number of Identified Specimens [NISP] = 7808), representing 18 families. We explore how the birds were utilized by considering cut marks and body part representation for each of the families represented, also drawing on the experimental skinning of buzzards, the most common bird in the assemblage. We conclude that the bird bones accumulated from a mix of activities including the exploitation of a seasonally abundant supply of migratory birds for food; the acquisition of skins, feathers and talons for decorative, symbolic and practical purposes; and the trapping of wildfowl and gamebirds as a supplementary food source to large mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The archaeological site of Payre (South-eastern France) has yielded a remarkable Early Middle Palaeolithic sequence with mixed occupations of Neanderthal and large carnivore occupations ranging from MIS 8 to 6. Recent discoveries during the reassessment of collections brought to light at least a dozen cave (Ursus spelaeus) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) remains bearing cut marks, indicating the in situ carcass processing (skinning, evisceration, dismembering, defleshing) of these large carnivores by early Neanderthals. This is just one of an increasing number of such examples throughout Europe, highlighting once again the diversity of food and non-food resources exploited by these hominins. Furthermore, so far, these discoveries are the sole evidence of large carnivore exploitation by Neanderthal in the western part of the middle Rhône basin, where Palaeolithic sites and Pleistocene bone accumulations are abundant. These new discoveries are put into context with the other known occurrences in Europe. • Large carnivores exploitation played a part in the dietary and cultural behavior of early Neanderthal populations. • Several species of Ursids have been exploited. • Early Neanderthals took advantage of a wide range of resources from these animals. • These practices occurred occasionally on a wide time span covering the Middle Palaeolithic. • Large carnivores exploitation is a Europe-wide phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Porcine bone is often used as a substitute for human bone in forensic trauma studies, but little has been published on its comparative mechanical behavior. The factors affecting mechanical properties and therefore selection of bone models are complex and include the age of the animal at death, and physiological loading conditions, the latter being of particular relevance when using a quadrupedal animal as a human substitute. The regional variation in hardness of adult and infant porcine bones was investigated using Vickers' indentation tests and compared to published data for human limb bones to relate differences to inherent genetic effects and loading influences, and to examine the validity of the porcine‐human model. Significant differences in hardness were observed both along and around the adult porcine humerus and femur, but no significant differences were found along the length of the infant bones. Significant differences were found between the forelimb and hindlimb, but only in the infant specimens. The hardness values for porcine adult cortical bone from the femur (52.23 ± 1.00 kg mm−2) were comparable to those reported in the literature for adult human cortical bone from the fibula, ilium, and calcaneus. These data will help inform subject selection in terms of both species and bone type for use in future trauma studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeological excavations at Tell el-Hesi have revealed an extensive Early Bronze Age IIIA city supported by grain-production and possibly trade. Early Bronze III materials are evident from multiple phases of settlement remains and a fortification wall visible in several excavated fields. From these, it appears that animal husbandry, along with grain production, were the main staples for the settlement. The majority of the excavated Early Bronze Age III animal remains, which were abundant, originated from Field VI, an occupation identified by the excavators as a mixed residential/production area. The Hesi field staff understood early on that Field VI contained local work areas with associated butchery spaces in the courtyards, evident by the presence of stone slabs and large bone deposits. The faunal remains from Field VI were first examined in 2006 and several samples were subjected to collagen isotopic analyses, which suggested that butchering activities may have been organized communally. The present research further explores animal processing in Tell el-Hesi's Field VI by conducting a re-examination of the faunal remains that includes an analysis of cut marks and other evidence of butchery practices. This will allow us to assess the organization of animal processing in courtyards. Results indicate differential uses of this space in connection with animal processing and other exploitation activities, with suggested employment of a direct provisioning system during the EBIIIA occupation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hominin-animal interactions at Pleistocene archaeological sites have been the main subject of research during human evolution. However, in contrast to that of ungulates, little is known about the evidence of human processing of carnivore species in this time interval of China. In this paper, we present the first case report of an interactive relationship between carnivore species and hunter-gathers in Pleistocene China, based mainly on a detailed taphonomic study of the faunal remains from Shuidonggou Locality 7. It seems highly probable that hominins butchered some individuals of carnivores and roasted bone elements with adhering meat at the site; whereas it's equally feasible that these animals were exploited by hominins mainly for their pelt or fur. In either way, evidence from the site indicates novel strategies in adaptive behaviors adopted by Late Pleistocene foragers in harsh environments of Northwest China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sopeña rock-shelter is a Palaeolithic site located in the northern slopes of the Cantabrian mountain range of northern Spain, facing the Bay of Biscay, in the Principality of Asturias. The shelter overlooks the Güeña River, which is a tributary to the Sella River. Excavations there yielded a long stratigraphic and archaeological sequence of episodes of human occupation, ranging from the later millennia of the Middle Palaeolithic -until the local disappearance of Neanderthals c. 42,630 ± 600 years ago, to the initial stages of the Upper Palaeolithic, which marks the local arrival of modern Homo sapiens sapiens , and an important Gravettian sequence. All the Sopeña levels yielded important accumulations of both lithic and faunal remains. The Mousterian appears, from top to bottom, in Sopeña levels XII, XIII, XIV, XV and XVI. Our study of the animal remains shows that at Level XV Neanderthal activity is very intense and responsible for the accumulation and modification of most of the bone remains (Yravedra et al., under review), while, as described below, this is not the case for levels XII, XIII and XIV, where carnivores were more involved in the accumulation and modification of animal remains. In this paper, we analyze the alternation between human and carnivore activity in the formation of the bone assemblages in the later Mousterian levels of Sopeña, on the eve of the arrival of anatomically modern humans in the Cantabrian region c. 40.000 years ago. • Sopeña level XIV, XIII, XII are three Mousterian levels from the north of Iberia. • The level XIV-XII are palimpsest with bone assemblages made by carnivores and humans. • Neandertal activity was focused on the procurement of large bovids, deers and horses. • The small ungulates, such as Iberian ibex and chamois, were carried for carnivores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, several studies have significantly changed our knowledge concerning the use of birds by Neanderthals. However, what remains to be clarified is the geographical and chronological variability of this human behaviour. The present case study provides new information on this topic/debate. The Grotte Vaufrey was discovered during the 1930s and was excavated during different periods. Work carried out by J.-P. Rigaud during the 1980s motivated many multidisciplinary studies in the cave, but accurate studies were not focused on avian remains. In this work, we provide new data on the bird remains from layer VIII (MIS 7), which is the richest among all the sequences and which has an important Mousterian component. Corvids are predominant in the assemblage and are associated with medium-sized birds and small Passeriformes, among others. Most of the remains present modern fractures, which hinder taphonomic interpretation. However, some alterations associated with raptor or mammalian carnivore activities, together with the anatomical representation and age profile, suggest a non-human accumulation of the majority of the bird remains, especially in the case of corvids that naturally died in the cave. However, at least some bones show evidence of anthropic activity, suggesting the occasional use of large- and medium-sized birds by human populations.

Here, I show that powerful machine learning (ML) algorithms can efficiently classify most BSM of any given controlled experimental assemblage. In some cases, classification may reach an accuracy of 100%. No other statistical tool commonly used in taphonomy had been this successful at classification before. However, the heuristics of ML algorithms depend tightly on the objectivity in raw data collection. The use of multivariate approaches in which variables are independently scored by the analyst introduces a subjective bias. In this work, I show that different analysts producing raw data on the same testing data set can lead to widely divergent BSM classifications and interpretations using the same powerful ML algorithms. It is emphasized that until an objective non-biasing method of raw data collection is implemented, BSM classification carried out via statistical tests will remain heuristically limited. As a consequence, the application of these referents to archeological BSM does not guarantee a correct interpretation beyond the analyst expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cut marks, scrape marks, knapping marks, percussion damage and engravings are examples of humanly produced modifications made on the surface of bones, antlers and/or teeth during defleshing, disarticulation, filleting, surface cleaning or when modifying these organic materials into objects and tools. These traces are direct indications of human activity and by studying how and why they were made, we can begin to understand a variety of past human behaviours. Consequently, over the last ten years we have observed an increase in the development of new analytical techniques to better understand the production, function, macro-, and micro-morphometric characteristics of bone modifications. In this study we present the application of multiple techniques to visualise and analyse the internal and external features of modified bone, teeth and antler. A Focus Variation Microscope (FVM), the Alicona InfiniteFocus optical surface measurement system, was used to examine the topography of surface modifications. This system produces 3-dimensional (3D) reconstructions, allowing evaluations of metric parameters (depth, width, area and volume) associated with different type of modifications. A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), operated in variable pressure mode, was used to capture higher resolution images for better characterisation and identification of the modifications and finer details, which are not always visible using a FVM. The extension of an SEM with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy allowed for elemental analyses of the modified surfaces, including the recognition of exogenous elements imbedded within the modifications. Finally, micro-Computed Tomography (μCT) was performed to record how extensively a modification can affect and alter the internal structure of organic specimens. Analyses of μCT data also help to visualise gross surface morphology when obscured by other material. Together these approaches provide in-depth assessments of bone taphonomy on both the inside and the outside, furthering our understandings of ancient human behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent techniques applied to taphonomy have made advances in our understanding of bone surface modifications. For many years, differences in bone density according to element and variations in animal size have been considered conditioning factors for many taphonomic processes. While several studies highlight how animal size and density affect fracture patterns and bone preservation rates, variations in cut mark morphology are yet to be confronted against these variables. Here, we assess the effect of these variables and their potential effect on cut mark morphology by comparing a considerable amount of cut marks on different anatomical elements of both suids and bovids. Experimentally produced cut mark samples were then digitally reconstructed using a David Laser scanner that allowed the statistical analysis of each cut mark's shape and form. Geometric morphometric analysis using 2D and 3D landmark models were unable to find substantial differences in cut mark morphologies caused by either element type of carcass size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taphonomic analyses at Palaeolithic sites contribute to explain the processes through which bone assemblages formed and accumulated, with a particular emphasis on the role played by humans. At most sites, the focus is generally on what agents were responsible for the formation of the assemblage. In this paper, in addition to discussing the zooarchaeological evidence and the taphonomy of La Lluera Cave (Asturias), we put forward a new analytical approach that aims to identify the most frequently used raw materials for the butchery of the animal carcasses found at the site. We analysed the cut-marks by means of three-dimensional reconstruction techniques, showing how they were made with both flint and quartzite. This interpretation is in line with the lithic assemblage found at the site, with both materials amply represented. Our results indicate that butchery practices were not significantly conditioned by, nor did they condition, raw material selection, in contrast with the patterns observed at other Palaeolithic sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coímbre cave (Peñamellera Alta, Asturias) is an Upper Palaeolithic site in Northern Spain, spanning an occupation sequence from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian periods. The upper layers -layer I and II-, corresponding to the Upper Magdalenian, register the highest intensity of human activity. In this paper, we analyse raw material functionality at the site through the study of cut-marks found on bone remains. At Coímbre, we have documented mainly quartzite, followed by flint; other raw materials are found in very low frequencies. There are several types of local quartzite that appear mainly as flaking debitage and stone tools such as burins and scrappers. On the other hand, flint is mainly knapped to elaborate blades and bladelets, as well as specialised implements, such as different types of side scrappers. Retouched flakes on flint are relatively more abundant than those made on quartzite. In this paper we employ the use of photogrammetry, geometric morphometrics and statistics to analyse the cut-marks from the Upper Magdalenian assemblage of Coímbre cave. Our aim is to determine the lithic raw material preferentially used for carcass processing at the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The arrival of new methodological approaches to study microscopic qualities in cut mark morphology has been a major improvement in our understanding of butchering activities. Micro-morphological differences can be detected in multiple different taphonomic alterations on bone cortical surfaces that can later be used to compare different trace mark types. Through this, we can generate studies that are able to diagnose the specific taphonomic agents and activities that produce said traces that can be found on osteological surfaces. This paper presents experimental data that have been studied using micro-photogrammetry and geometric morphometrics, successfully distinguishing morphological differences in cut marks produced by different lithic tool types as well as different raw materials. The statistical results and methodologies presented here can later be applied to archaeological sites; aiding in our understanding of raw material exploitation, tool production as well as the different butchering activities that are present in faunal assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Tumbling is defined as a process in which hyper-concentrated flows alter bone remains, producing changes in their morphology and original structure. Although the process is well known, little experimental research has focused on describing the effects this process has on bone surface modifications (BSM), which can subsequently be applied to the fossil record. Water currents may have played an important role in altering the surfaces of bones from Barranc de la Boella, which were deposited in a deltaic fan context. Striae of undetermined origin have been documented on bones at the la Mina locality, and possible cut marks found on bones at Pit 1 locality. In our experiments, both fresh and dry bones with reproduced trampling striae and cut marks were tumbled in a tumbling machine, combining different types of movement and proportions of water to sediment. The bones were examined after each of the five cycles of the modification process, which lasted 30′, 30′, 1 h, 2 h, and 4 h. Our results show a considerable diminishing of trampling striae, while the majority of cut marks were preserved. The marks on fresh bones were more severely altered than those on dry bones. Based on the results of this experiment, the marks from Pit 1 appear to be morphologically close to the experimentally altered cut marks, while the majority of those from la Mina are more similar to the altered trampling striae. Highlights • Reproduced trampling and cut marks were exposed to tumbling in different cycles. • Preservation, modification or obliteration of the striae were documented in each cycle. • Cut marks survive in a higher percentage than trampling striae. • Few diagnostic criteria survive to the tumbling process. • Our results let us to interpret the origin of striae with undetermined origin from Barranc de la Boella site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The scientific replicability crisis has recently focused on bone surface modification (BSM) analysis, which underlies zooarchaeological and anthropological conclusions about the ecology and evolution of tool-assisted carcass consumption behavior. We review a recent blind test of inter-analyst correspondence in morphometric analysis of experimentally generated butchery marks that advocates algorithmic methods for diagnosing and measuring BSM in an effort to standardize methodology and minimize inter-analyst error (Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2017. Use and abuse of cut mark analyses: The Rorschach effect. Journal of Archaeological Science , 86 , 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2017.08.001). This study overstates concern about the inaccuracy of BSM measurement and interpretation, concluding that BSM analysis is a subjective, non-scientific endeavor. Based on a minimally described sample of cut marks, it measures variables that involve inherent inaccuracy and subjectivity and overlooks how the contexts of experimental sample generation – particularly the difference between immanent and configurational processes – differentially affect cut mark morphometrics. We illustrate this discussion with experimental taphonomic examples focused on analytical context including sample construction and control over factors that affect cut mark cross-sectional size. Our analysis suggests the relationship between tool attributes and cut mark morphology is not generalizable to all experimental and archaeological butchery contexts. We show that our experimental samples capture metric variability observed in archaeological cut marks, but that intentionally incised marks and realistic defleshing marks differ in width and depth. Further, when controlling for factors that impact cut mark size including animal size class, tool type, butcher experience, and density across bone portions, overlapping cut mark widths and depths produced by phonolite and ignimbrite flakes lead to poor classification of marks according to causal flake material, which casts doubt on the ability to discriminate cut marks made by different materials. We build datasets that include diverse experimental contexts and suggest that meta-analysis can disentangle how multiple configurational factors contribute to cut mark morphometric attributes. Ultimately, progress in BSM analysis rests on inter-analyst replicability, which must be preceded by clear discussion of all parts of the inferential loop – from the design of experiments that generate actualistic analogues, to their use in supporting archaeological arguments. Otherwise, problematic expert knowledge traditions may mask arguments from authority in sophisticated methodological language and under-reported experimental context. Highlights • Is morphometric analysis of bone surface modifications inherently subjective? • The Rorschach argument says so, but inappropriately measures a problematic BSM sample. • Analytical context is under-reported in BSM analysis, which emphasizes new methods. • Intentional incision creates wider and deeper cut marks than realistic butchery. • Replication in BSM analysis requires clear contextual presentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Well‐preserved human skull, two upper vertebral bodies, and bones of the right hand were found in a remote cave in the Jerusalem mountains. The individual was identified as an adult male, 30–40 years old, who was C‐14 dated to the 11th century. It was attributed to the local, Bedouin population. The skull manifested four sharp force trauma lesions, resulted from interpersonal violence in different occasions: Two represent past events, one is peri‐mortem, and one is the direct cause of death. The current manuscript describes the pathologies and discusses possible interpretations, which combine physical anthropology with archaeology, history, and ethnography altogether. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of bone surface modifications (BSMs) is a prominent part of paleoanthropological studies, namely taphonomic research. Behavioral interpretations of the fossil record hinge strongly upon correct assessment of BSMs. With the significant impact of microscopic analysis to the study of BSMs, multiple authors have discussed the reliability of these technological improvements for gaining resolution in BSM discrimination. While a certain optimism is present, some important questions are ignored and others overemphasized without appropriate empirical support. This specifically affects the study of cut marks. A diversity of geometric morphometric approaches applied to the study of cut marks have resulted in the coexistence (and competition) of different 2D and 3D methods. The present work builds upon the foundation of experiments presented by Maté-González et al. (2015), Courtenay et al. (2017) and Otárola-Castillo et al. (2018) to contrast for the first time 2D and 3D methods in their resolution of cut mark interpretation and classification. The results presented here show that both approaches are equally valid and that the use of sophisticated 3D methods do not contribute to an improvement in accuracy.

This study uses a combination of digital microscopic analysis and experimental archaeology to assess stone tool cut marks on animal bones. We used two un-retouched flint flakes and two burins to inflict cut marks on fresh, boiled, and dry ungulate bones. The experiment produced three series of three engravings on each bone with each of the experimental tools. The first series involved one single stroke; the second, two strokes in the same direction; and the third, multiple strokes using a to-and-fro movement. We analyzed the striations using a Hirox 3D digital microscope (KH-7700) and collected metric and profile data on the morphology of the cut marks. In order to describe the shape of each cross section, we calculated the ratio between the breadth at the top and the breadth at the floor of cut marks. Preliminary results show that both the tool type and the method of creating the cut mark influence the shape of the resulting groove. In our experiment, morphological parameters can be used to differentiate between marks produced using un-retouched flint flakes and those produced using burins. However, neither morphological nor morphometric analysis allows us to identify the mechanical motion used to produce the cuts, nor the state of the bone (fresh, boiled, or dry) at the moment of marking.

Abstract In this article, we present the first results on the large mammal fauna from the new open-air Lower Palaeolithic locality Marathousa 1 (MAR-1) (Megalopolis Basin, Peloponnesus, Greece). MAR-1 belongs to the Marathousa Member of the Choremi Formation and its large mammal faunal list (collection 2013–2016) includes the castorid Castor fiber , the mustelids Mustela sp. and Lutra simplicidens , the felid Felis sp., the canids Vulpes sp. and Canis sp., the elephantid Palaeoloxodon antiquus , the hippopotamid Hippopotamus antiquus , the bovid Bison sp., and the cervids Dama sp. and Cervus elaphus. This faunal association is common in the Galerian (Middle Pleistocene) mammal communities of Europe (ca. 0.9–0.4 Ma). The MAR-1 fauna is consistent with a temperate climate and is indicative of a landscape with substantial woodland components with more open areas, close to permanent and large freshwater bodies. Of particular interest are an elephant cranium and numerous postcranial elements, which were found in close anatomical association and are attributed to a single individual of the straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus. The skeleton belonged to a male individual in its late adulthood close to or in its sixties, with live skeletal height around 3.7 m at the shoulder and body mass around 9.0 tonnes. The good state of preservation of the MAR-1 bones allows the identification of taphonomic modifications. Cut marks on the elephant skeleton, and on other elephant and mammal bones, indicate human exploitation by means of butchering activities, in accordance with the traits of the lithic assemblage and its spatial association with the bones. Carnivore activity is also recorded on some elephant and cervid bones. Marathousa 1 is among the oldest elephant butchering sites in Europe and the only one known in Southeastern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study presents a taphonomic examination of the ca. 1.84 million year old (Ma) bovid fauna from FLK Level 22 (FLK Zinj), Bed I, Olduvai Gorge using a new GIS spatial analysis approach. The FLK Zinj site contains some of the best preserved evidence for meat eating by hominins and has been used extensively in reconstructions of early hominin behavior. However, despite numerous interpretations of site function, there is currently no consensus regarding how hominins acquired carcasses at FLK Zinj. Some interpretations argue that Early Stone Age hominins had early access to fleshed carcasses through hunting or active scavenging, while others argue hominins had late access to largely defleshed carcasses through passive scavenging. In this study, GIS was used to record bone preservation in the FLK Zinj assemblage as well as in several modern, experimentally-modified bone assemblages, which are used for comparison. The placement of hominin- and carnivore-produced modifications was documented on bones from these assemblages, and the GIS Spatial Analyst was used to identify patterning in tooth mark clusters as well as patterning in cut mark locations. This analysis suggests hominins had early access to fleshed carcasses at FLK Zinj, particularly of smaller prey, which they may have acquired through hunting. Damage patterns on larger carcasses are more difficult to interpret, but are consistent with early access through hunting or aggressive scavenging. A reanalysis of carnivore tooth mark frequencies on the FLK Zinj bovid fauna also supports an early access scenario. Highlights • Butchery marks and carnivore tooth marks on fossil prey provide information about past carnivore and hominin behavior. • This information is essential for answering questions about the origins of hominin meat eating. • Evidence for hominin meat eating is well preserved at FLK 22 (FLK Zinj), Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (c. 1.84 Ma). • Considerable disagreement exists among previous studies regarding whether hominins were hunting or scavenging at FLK Zinj. • GIS image analysis is used here to examine tooth mark distribution in the FLK Zinj assemblage and experimental assemblages. • Results suggest that hominins had early access to fleshed carcasses of smaller prey at FLK Zinj. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we report on an incomplete human skeleton, soot patches related to anthropogenic fireplaces, and cut marks on the mandible of an extinct peccary, from the submerged Muknal cave southwest of Tulum on the Mexican Yucatán peninsula. The human individual, here named ‘Muknal Grandfather’, was identified as a male based on cranial parameters. The age at the time of death was estimated to be between 40 and 45 years. We propose that the human bones have been brought to the cave during the latest Pleistocene or early Holocene, but not later than 8600 14C yr BP (ca. 9600 cal BP), as a secondary burial of a partial skeleton. The peccary mandible was placed close to the burial site, possibly as part of the same ritual. The Muknal cave therefore served as a place for funeral rituals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The study of cut marks in archaeological contexts is of great importance for understanding the subsistence strategies of past human groups. Many authors have indicated differences to exist between the cut marks produced by different tools and when the same types of tool have been made from different raw materials. The present work examines the cut marks made during the experimental butchering of a red deer (Cervus elaphus) using simple quartz flakes, with those found on fossilised animal remains at the Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter site (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain) likely to have been made with similar flakes. The methodology followed was that of Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. (2009), which was originally designed to differentiate between cut marks and trampling marks, but which here was tested as a method of distinguishing between the raw materials from which cutting tools were made. The results were also compared to those made with other types of tool/raw material reported in the literature. The present results confirm the above ideas: the marks made experimentally by the quartz flakes are very similar to those seen on the faunal remains from the level F of Navalmaíllo Rock Shelter site, but different to those made by other tools or by flakes made from other materials. They also show, however, that different cut mark morphologies are largely independent of the size of the animal butchered, and of the anatomical element on which they appear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research was to identify characteristics specific to a machete and katana on three different bone types. One machete and two katanas were used to produce cut marks on Sus scrofa rib, flat and long bones. Fifty‐nine cuts were produced by the katanas and 38 by the machete. The presence of flaking, feathering, peeling, micropeeling, chattering, microcurvature, scoop defect, and exit notch was noted, and bivariate associations between each characteristic and weapon type were assessed using Pearson's chi‐square tests for independence and logistic regression models developed. Significant predictors for machete cut marks are scoop defect for rib bones (correct classification 93%), micropeeling in flat bones, chattering on flat and long bones (all p < 001) and for the katana, microcurvature (p < 004) and exit notch on flat and long bones (p < 001; correct classification 96% and 100%, respectively). The identified bivariate associations and final logistic regression models may be utilized in forensic investigations when identifying hacking trauma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]