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Microvascular networks can be modelled as a network of connected cylinders. Presently, however, there are limited approaches with which to recover these networks from biomedical images. We have therefore developed and implemented computer algorithms to geometrically reconstruct three-dimensional (3D) retinal microvascular networks from micrometre-scale imagery, resulting in a concise representation of two endpoints and radius for each cylinder detected within a delimited text file. This format is suitable for a variety of purposes, including efficient simulations of molecular delivery. Here, we detail a semi-automated pipeline consisting of the detection of retinal microvascular volumes within 3D imaging datasets, the enhancement and analysis of these volumes for reconstruction, and the geometric construction algorithm itself, which converts voxel data into representative 3D cylindrical objects.

While anti-VEGF drugs are commonly used to inhibit pathological retinal and choroidal neovascularization, not all patients respond in an optimal manner. Mechanisms underpinning resistance to anti-VEGF therapy include the upregulation of other pro-angiogenic factors. Therefore, therapeutic strategies that simultaneously target multiple growth factor signalling pathways would have significant value. Here, we show that Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CAMKII) mediates the angiogenic actions of a range of growth factors in human retinal endothelial cells and that this kinase acts as a key nodal point for the activation of several signal transduction cascades that are known to play a critical role in growth factor-induced angiogenesis. We also demonstrate that endothelial CAMKIIγ and δ isoforms differentially regulate the angiogenic effects of different growth factors and that genetic deletion of these isoforms suppresses pathological retinal and choroidal neovascularisation in vivo. Our studies suggest that CAMKII could provide a novel and efficacious target to inhibit multiple angiogenic signalling pathways for the treatment of vasoproliferative diseases of the eye. CAMKIIγ represents a particularly promising target, as deletion of this isoform inhibited pathological neovascularisation, whilst enhancing reparative angiogenesis in the ischemic retina.

The retina is a highly metabolically active tissue that requires a substantial blood supply. The retinal circulation supports the inner retina, while the choroidal vessels supply the photoreceptors. Alterations in retinal perfusion contribute to numerous sight-threatening disorders, including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma and retinal branch vein occlusions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the control of blood flow through the retina and how these are altered during ocular disease could lead to the identification of new targets for the treatment of these conditions. Retinal arterioles are the main resistance vessels of the retina, and consequently, play a key role in regulating retinal hemodynamics through changes in luminal diameter. In recent years, we have developed methods for isolating arterioles from the rat retina which are suitable for a wide range of applications including cell physiology studies. This preparation has already begun to yield new insights into how blood flow is controlled in the retina and has allowed us to identify some of the key changes that occur during ocular disease. In this article, we describe methods for the isolation of rat retinal arterioles and include protocols for their use in patch-clamp electrophysiology, calcium imaging and pressure myography studies. These vessels are also amenable for use in PCR-, western blotting- and immunohistochemistry-based studies.

Purpose: Activation of the transient receptor potential channels, TRPC6, TRPM4, and TRPP1 (PKD2), has been shown to contribute to the myogenic constriction of cerebral arteries. In the present study we sought to determine the potential role of various mechanosensitive TRP channels to myogenic signaling in arterioles of the rat retina.Methods: Rat retinal arterioles were isolated for RT-PCR, Fura-2 Ca2+ microfluorimetry, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and pressure myography studies. In some experiments, confocal immunolabeling of wholemount preparations was used to examine the localization of specific mechanosensitive TRP channels in retinal vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs).Results: Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis demonstrated mRNA expression for TRPC1, M7, V1, V2, V4, and P1, but not TRPC6 or M4, in isolated retinal arterioles. Immunolabeling revealed plasma membrane, cytosolic and nuclear expression of TRPC1, M7, V1, V2, V4, and P1 in retinal VSMCs. Hypoosmotic stretch-induced Ca2+ influx in retinal VSMCs was reversed by the TRPV2 inhibitor tranilast and the nonselective TRPP1/V2 antagonist amiloride. Inhibitors of TRPC1, M7, V1, and V4 had no effect. Hypoosmotic stretch-activated cation currents were similar in Na+ and Cs+ containing solutions suggesting no contribution by TRPP1 channels. Direct plasma membrane stretch triggered cation current activity that was blocked by tranilast and specific TRPV2 pore-blocking antibodies and mimicked by the TRPV2 activator, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Preincubation of retinal arterioles with TRPV2 blocking antibodies prevented the development of myogenic tone.Conclusions: Our results suggest that retinal VSMCs express a range of mechanosensitive TRP channels, but only TRPV2 appears to contribute to myogenic signaling in this vascular bed.

Purpose Recent evidence suggests that neuroglial dysfunction and degeneration contributes to the etiology and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Advanced lipoxidation end products (ALEs) have been implicated in the pathology of various diseases, including diabetes and several neurodegenerative disorders. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible link between the accumulation of ALEs and neuroretinal changes in diabetic retinopathy. Methods Retinal sections obtained from diabetic rats and age-matched controls were processed for immunohistochemistry using antibodies against several well defined ALEs. In vitro experiments were also performed using a human Müller (Moorfields/Institute of Ophthalmology-Müller 1 [MIO-M1]) glia cell line. Western blot analysis was used to measure the accumulation of the acrolein-derived ALE adduct Nε-(3-formyl-3,4-dehydropiperidino)lysine (FDP-lysine) in Müller cells preincubated with FDP-lysine-modified human serum albumin (FDP-lysine-HSA). Responses of Müller cells to FDP-lysine accumulation were investigated by analyzing changes in the protein expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and the inwardly rectifying potassium channel Kir4.1. In addition, mRNA expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) were determined by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT–PCR). Apoptotic cell death was evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis after staining with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled annexin V and propidium iodide. Results No significant differences in the levels of malondialdehyde-, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal-, and 4-hydroxyhexenal-derived ALEs were evident between control and diabetic retinas after 4 months of diabetes. By contrast, FDP-lysine immunoreactivity was markedly increased in the Müller glia of diabetic rats. Time-course studies revealed that FDP-lysine initially accumulated within Müller glial end feet after only a few months of diabetes and thereafter spread distally throughout their inner radial processes. Exposure of human Müller glia to FDP-lysine-HSA led to a concentration-dependent accumulation of FDP-lysine-modified proteins across a broad molecular mass range. FDP-lysine accumulation was associated with the induction of HO-1, no change in GFAP, a decrease in protein levels of the potassium channel subunit Kir4.1, and upregulation of transcripts for VEGF, IL-6, and TNF-α. Incubation of Müller glia with FDP-lysine-HSA also caused apoptosis at high concentrations. Conclusions Collectively, these data strongly suggest that FDP-lysine accumulation could be a major factor contributing to the Müller glial abnormalities occurring in the early stages of diabetic retinopathy.

BACKGROUND: The airway epithelium is exposed to a range of physical and chemical irritants in the environment that are known to trigger asthma. Transient receptor potential (TRP) cation channels play a central role in sensory responses to noxious physical and chemical stimuli. Recent genetic evidence suggests an involvement of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), one member of the vanilloid subfamily of TRP channels, in the pathophysiology of asthma. The functional expression of TRPV1 on airway epithelium has yet to be elucidated.OBJECTIVE: In this study we examined the molecular, functional, and immunohistochemical expression of TRPV1 in asthmatic and healthy airways.METHODS: Bronchial biopsy specimens and bronchial brushings were obtained from healthy volunteers (n = 18), patients with mild-to-moderate asthma (n = 24), and patients with refractory asthma (n = 22). Cultured primary bronchial epithelial cells from patients with mild asthma (n = 4), nonasthmatic coughers (n = 4), and healthy subjects (n = 4) were studied to investigate the functional role of TRPV1.RESULTS: Quantitative immunohistochemistry revealed significantly more TRPV1 expression in asthmatic patients compared with healthy subjects, with the greatest expression in patients with refractory asthma (P = .001). PCR and Western blotting analysis confirmed gene and protein expression of TRPV1 in cultured primary bronchial epithelial cells. Patch-clamp electrophysiology directly confirmed functional TRPV1 expression in all 3 groups. In functional assays the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin induced dose-dependent IL-8 release, which could be blocked by the antagonist capsazepine. Reduction of external pH from 7.4 to 6.4 activated a capsazepine-sensitive outwardly rectifying membrane current.CONCLUSIONS: Functional TRPV1 channels are present in the human airway epithelium and overexpressed in the airways of patients with refractory asthma. These channels might represent a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of uncontrolled asthma.