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The present study was conducted to determine whether the problem characteristics of U.S. students school-identified with emotional disturbance (ED) have changed over two decades. We used data from a teacher rating instrument designed to measure the five problem characteristics of ED, as stated in its Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) definition. These data were collected in the process of norming the instrument for 1998 and again for 2020. Comparison of the 1998 and 2020 students school-identified with ED showed that the 1998 group had significantly more problematic functioning on two characteristics, namely, Relationship Problems and Inappropriate Behavior, but no more problematic differences on Inability to Learn, Unhappiness or Depression, and Physical Symptoms or Fears. In addition, analyses of selected items gave more context to the main results. Study limitations, future research, and implications are discussed.

Provide data on the five characteristics of emotional disturbance (ED). For 503 students with ED and 2016 without disabilities, teachers rated the characteristics ("Inability to Learn;" "Relationship Problems;" "Inappropriate Behavior;" "Unhappiness or Depression;" "Physical Symptoms or Fears"), plus "Socially Maladjusted." We applied a 2 (ED, without disabilities) × 2 (female, male) × 3 (elementary, middle, high school) covariance analysis, with follow-up comparisons. Students with ED showed greater problems than students without disabilities on all five characteristics, and "Socially Maladjusted." On "Inability to Learn," among students with ED genders did not differ at elementary but males had greater problems at middle school. On "Inappropriate Behavior" and "Physical Symptoms or Fears," students with ED varied across school levels but students without disabilities did not. All five characteristics discriminated students with ED from those without disabilities. Differences between genders and school levels varied across characteristics.

Ensuring the provision of a free, appropriate public education (FAPE) to students qualified for services under the disability category of emotional disturbance (ED) has been both challenging and controversial. Examining this population in light of the five characteristics listed in the federal definition may provide useful insights to address needs and improve outcomes. The purpose of this study was to use latent class analysis to examine profiles across the five characteristics of the federal definition of ED for a sample of 491 students school-identified with ED. Key findings include that (a) students with ED are a heterogeneous group with distinct and qualitatively different subgroups; (b) latent classes representing the severe problems and the externalizing problems typologies tended to consist of younger students; (c) greater proportions of Black, Hispanic, and English-language learner students were found in the severe and externalizing latent classes; and (d) students in the externalizing and severe latent classes spent more time in special education classrooms and had worse ratings on social maladjustment. The findings highlight important implications for practice in regard to assessment, program differentiation, and preservice teacher training. Research limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.

This study examined the internal structure of the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance-3 Rating Scale (RS), a teacher-completed RS developed to measure emotional disturbance (ED). As defined in U.S. law and regulations, ED involves five characteristics or patterns of behavioral and emotional maladaptation. RS data obtained on a sample of students with ED were used to examine validity evidence based on the internal structure of the assessment. Of particular interest was the extent to which multivariate factors derived from the RS data conform to the five characteristics of ED stated in the definition. Results indicate that the RS data fit a 5-factor model reasonably well. A subsequent bifactor analysis identified a considerable proportion of common variance across factors, suggesting the presence of a strong general ED factor, two distinct group factors (Inability to Learn and Inappropriate Behavior), and three weak group factors. The findings provided evidence of the validity of the SAED-3 RS based on internal structure and pointed to support for use of the RS in contributing to the process of determining whether a student qualifies for the ED education disability. Implications for improved research on the nature of ED and how students with ED can be better served are discussed.

For years, the research and policy focus on Black students with emotional disturbance (ED) has been on racial disproportionality. The disproportionality issue has sparked professional debate and raised major questions about racial bias, cultural fairness, appropriateness of assessment instruments, the adequacy of special education programs, poverty, exposure to risk factors, and research approaches. Unfortunately, minimal progress has been made on understanding the overrepresentation of Black students in ED programs. The purpose of the present study was to initiate research on the emotional and behavioral functioning of Black students with ED, by comparing the teacher-completed ratings from the "Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance" for Black students with ED (n = 139), Black students without ED (n = 421), White students with ED (n = 271), and White students without ED (n = 1,218). The results demonstrated that: (1) Black students with ED were judged to demonstrate significantly higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems than their Black and White peers without ED; and (2) Black students with ED differed minimally from White students with ED. Research limitations, directions for future research, and implications for assessment and service delivery are discussed.

The present study investigated evidence of the construct validity of scores from the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance Rating Scale (SAED-3 RS), which is designed to help identify emotional disturbance (ED) as defined by U.S. law and regulations. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the degree to which SAED-3 RS scores differed between students with school-identified ED, students with school-identified learning disabilities (LD), and students without disabilities. The sample consisted of 2,193 K-12 students from throughout the U.S. The findings supported three hypotheses related to evidence of construct validity: (1) students with ED would differ from students without disabilities on all five dimensions of the SAED-3 RS; (2) students with ED would differ from students with LD on all dimensions of the SAED-3 RS except for the Inability to Learn dimensions; and (3) students with LD would differ from students without disabilities on all five dimensions of the SAED-3 RS, but that these differences would be smaller than the differences between students with ED and students without disabilities. Implications for practice and directions for future research are also discussed.

The present study explored the psychometric properties of ratings made using the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance--Third Edition: Rating Scale (SAED-3 RS), a scale developed for use in identifying school-age students with emotional and behavioral problems. The purposes of the study were to assess differential item functioning (DIF) for SAED-3 RS items between White and Hispanic students and to assess the impact of DIF on SAED-3 RS scale scores. The sample consisted of 979 students without disabilities who were identified as White/Non-Hispanic (71.91%) and Hispanic (28.09%). The data indicated that SAED-3 RS items demonstrated small to negligible levels of DIF and that DIF did not saliently impact scores. The data suggest that items and scores yielded from the SAED-3 RS are consistent in measuring the emotional and behavioral functioning of school-age students from diverse backgrounds. Research limitations, future research directions, and practical use implications for school personnel are discussed.

The present study investigated the psychometric properties of the "Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance -- Third Edition: Rating Scale" (SAED-3 RS), which is designed for use in identifying students with emotional disturbance for special education services. The purposes of this study were to evaluate (a) the measurement invariance of SAED-3 RS scores between White and African American students and (b) the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on test scores from the SAED-3 RS. The sample consisted of 855 K-12 students from throughout the United States. The findings suggested that SAED-3 RS items exhibited small to negligible levels of DIF and that DIF did not significantly impact scores. The results supported the SAED-3 RS, a teacher-completed rating scale, as relatively consistent in measuring the emotional and behavioral status of school-age students from different racial backgrounds. Researchers and practitioners can have confidence that scores from the SAED-3 RS are not substantially affected by DIF when assessing the emotional and behavioral functioning of African American and White school-age students. Research limitations, future research, and implications for school professionals are discussed.

The purpose of this article is to provide a qualitative review of the published research on the Scales for Assessing Emotional Disturbance-3: Screener noting the psychometric properties and overall findings. Results from 10 studies were reviewed and summarized. Across the studies, internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and inter-rater agreement were satisfactory. Unidimensionality of the tests scores was supported, and several studies reported only trivial degrees of bias across racial/ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. Diagnostic utility was acceptable as were convergent relations with other measures of psychopathology. Social validity was also satisfactory. This review indicates that the psychometric properties of the scores from the Screener meet acceptable professional standards and supports its use in school-based programs to identify at-risk students.

The present study examined the measurement properties of the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS), a universal screening instrument which identifies students presenting with emotional and behavioral problems. The primary research questions sought to examine the degree to which the EBS item responses fit the Rasch model through evaluating fit of item responses to the Rasch model and item-measure correlations. The sample consisted of K-12 students with emotional disturbance (n = 1138) and with no identified disabilities (n = 1096). Students were rated by their teachers on the 10-item EBS. The findings suggested the EBS possesses favorable measurement properties such that most items had (1) overall good fit to the Rasch model, (2) a few items across age/gender that assess internalizing problems were found to be somewhat problematic, (3) the item hierarchy was found to align with logical and theoretical expectations, and (4) teachers endorsed the response options in a reliable and predictive manner with response categories mostly being distinguishable from one another. Overall, the results justify the interpretations and decisions made with the EBS scores.

The objective of this study was to assess the measurement invariance of items from the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) across racial and ethnic groups and assess the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on test scores from the EBS. Participants were 4,856 first-grade students (49% female) who were diverse with regard to race and ethnicity (45% African American, 41% Hispanic/Latino, and 14% Caucasian). Classroom teachers rated each student on the EBS during the fall semester screening window. Item response theory modeling was combined with ordinal regression to investigate the presence and impact of differential item functioning across 3 race and ethnicity groups. The findings suggest that items from the EBS exhibit small to negligible levels of DIF, and the limited DIF that was present does not significantly impact overall scores. Researchers and practitioners can have confidence that scores from the EBS are relatively unaffected by test bias when measuring the emotional and behavioral risk of young students from African American, Hispanic/Latino, or Caucasian backgrounds.

The present study examined the psychometric properties of a universal screening instrument called the Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS), which is designed to identify students exhibiting emotional and behavioral problems. The primary purposes of this study were to assess the measurement invariance of EBS items between Caucasian and African-American students and to assess the impact of differential item functioning (DIF) on EBS scores. The sample consisted of 946 elementary students from throughout the U.S. The findings suggested that EBS items exhibited small to negligible levels of DIF, and that DIF did not significantly impact EBS scores. The results supported the EBS as universal screening instrument that is fair in measuring the emotional and behavioral risk of elementary students. Research limitations and implications for school professionals are discussed.

Early identification of student behavioral needs allows educators the opportunity to apply appropriate interventions before negative behaviors become more intensive and persistent. A variety of screening tools are available to identify which students are at risk for persistent behavior problems in school. This article provides two examples in which the "Emotional and Behavioral Screener" (EBS) was used to identify students at risk of emotional or behavioral problems. Example 1 demonstrates how the EBS can be used within a schoolwide positive behavioral interventions and supports framework to inform decision making. Example 2 demonstrates how the EBS can be used to inform behavioral intervention decisions in an individual teacher's classroom. Finally, suggestions for using the EBS across various school formats are provided.

Students who exhibit substantial behavior and emotional problems in school often have shown less severe problems earlier. Screening for such problems can suggest which students need extra support and help educators to direct support to students who are more likely to benefit. The present study explored predictive validity of a very brief behavior problem screening procedure as applied to 2,253 students ages 5 to 17 years. About half were special education students identified with emotional disturbance; the rest were students with no identified disabilities. Teachers rated them on the 10 items of the "Emotional and Behavioral Screener." Any student whose sum of ratings exceeded a norm-based cutoff score was designated as at-risk; otherwise the student was not at-risk. Binary classification analyses of four age-level by gender subgroups of students showed that the instrument validly identifies at-risk students. Study method limitations and directions for research to clarify some remaining questions about this screening procedure are presented.

The Emotional and Behavioral Screener (EBS) is a universal screening instrument designed to identify students whose excessive problem behaviors put them at risk of the education disability category of emotional disturbance (ED). This article reports findings from three studies that address the reliability and validity of the EBS. Studies 1 and 2 examined the test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the EBS. Study 3 investigated the convergent validity of the EBS by comparing it to the "Behavioral and Emotional Screening System." The results from these studies support the reliability and validity of the EBS as a universal screening instrument for identifying students who may be at risk of ED or those who may require a greater degree of monitoring, decision-making, formal assessment, or intervention to restore normal behavior functioning and prevent identification as ED. Implications, research limitations, and future research needs are discussed.

A key issue in using the federal definition of emotional disturbance (ED) is the challenge of measuring five characteristics of ED (Epstein, Nordness, Cullinan, & Hertzog, 2002). Stated briefly, these five characteristics include: (1) an inability to learn; (2) relationship problems; (3) inappropriate behavior; (4) unhappiness or depression; and (5) physical symptoms or fears. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004) specifies that data for making a disability identification must arise from multiple sources, and proper assessment practice dictates this as well (Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2007; Turnbull, Huerta, & Stowe, 2006). Thus, school personnel use a variety of assessment practices to gather information for deciding whether to identify a student with an emotional disturbance. Among these assessment practices are teacher nomination, teacher-completed rating scales, student-completed self-rating scales, semi structured interviews of student or parent, and measurement of observed student behavior. Classroom observation of a student for identification as ED is a requirement in the special education regulations of many states. However, the nature of such observation is often unspecified, with assessors and teams having various possibilities. Classroom observations provide a measure of actual classroom behavior that can be an important supplement to other assessment practices to determine eligibility as well as intervention decisions. Observation protocols that accompany the "Aschenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment Child Behavior Checklist" (ASEBA), "Behavioral Assessment System for Children-Second Edition" (BASC2), and "Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders" (SSBD) can be used to provide supportive documentation to assist in eligibility decisions and intervention planning; however, few are keyed specifically to the federal definition of ED. This column describes a target-behavior recording procedure designed to yield data based on the federal criteria for ED. (Contains 2 tables and 1 note.)

This article examines definitions state education agencies use to describe the federal education disability called "emotional disturbance." State definitions were collected so that various aspects of them could be analyzed and compared with results of similar studies completed in the 1970s and 1980s. Among results are that state definitions have changed substantially over the decades and definitions have become increasingly similar to the federal definition. Discussion elaborated key findings about components of the state definitions, changes in terminology, and features of the federal definition shared by state definitions. Several recommendations are offered for research and policy consideration, as suggested by the findings. (Contains 1 table and 1 note.)

This article describes the Emotional and Behavioral Screener, a brief universal screening procedure designed to help identify students whose emotional and behavioral functioning puts them at risk for future serious problems, including identification in the emotional disturbance category. Development of the screener drew on items and normative samples associated with an existing instrument for measuring emotional disturbance. Among present findings are that the screener possesses high internal consistency reliability, overall and for age, gender, and race/ethnic subgroups. Construct validity was adequate, as indicated by significant discriminations between groups of students known to differ as to emotional and behavioral problems. Discussion includes study limitations, research needs about other psychometric characteristics, and some uses of the Emotional and Behavioral Screener.

The present study examined problem characteristics of students with emotional disturbance in 3 educational environments, the behavior management and intervention strategies their teachers used, and what relation exists between problem characteristics and intervention strategies. Teachers completed a behavior problems rating scale and they indicated how frequently they used 15 strategies to address academic, externalizing, and internalizing problems. There were significant differences across environments for only 1 characteristic of emotional disturbance, physical symptoms or fears. Teachers in general education settings mainly addressed academic problems; resource/separate classroom educators used instructional, positive, and reductive strategies for academic and externalizing problems and verbal reinforcement for internalizing problems. Separate school educators used a variety of strategies consistently for all 3 problems. Implications for supporting students with emotional disturbance across educational environments are discussed. (Contains 6 tables.)

More than 2 decades ago, Hallahan and Kauffman and others suggested a cross-categorical approach to teaching students identified with high-incidence disabilities (i.e., emotional-behavioral disabilities, learning disabilities, and mild intellectual disabilities) because their behavioral and academic characteristics were seen to be more similar than different. Since that time, more than 150 articles and other works have discussed and compared the characteristics of students across these high-incidence disability categories. This descriptive review examined 34 studies comparing various characteristics of students with high-incidence disabilities. The results indicate that students with emotional-behavioral disabilities, learning disabilities, and mild intellectual disabilities do not differ markedly in social adjustment, but do display considerably different cognitive and behavioral profiles. Implications for instruction and placement are discussed.

African American students are disproportionately likely to be identified with the emotional disturbance (ED) education disability. To investigate how teachers' perceptions of students might vary by race, we analyzed Black and White teachers' ratings of 769 students with ED, subdivided by race and grade level, on six emotional and behavior problem variables. Results did not support the position that, among students with ED, overrepresentation of African Americans arises from racial bias in teacher perceptions of emotional and behavioral problems; however, there were several interesting main and interaction effects. Discussion focused on implications of present results for the continuing issue of race disproportionality among students with ED, as well as several lines of research that might clarify race disproportionality and related issues in identification of students with ED. (Contains 1 table.)

A meta-analysis of 58 studies was performed in which IQ, academic achievement, and behavior characteristics were examined across students with learning disabilities (LD), mild intellectual disabilities (MID), and emotional/behavioral disabilities (E/BD). The effect sizes between students with LD and MID were the largest in the domains of IQ and academic achievement, and the differences involving pupils with E/BD versus those with LD and MID were largest in the behavior realm. Very little disparity was found when comparing (a) those with LD and students with E/BD on IQ measures, and (b) pupils with LD and those with MID in behavior. Implications for cross-categorical and noncategorical special education are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

This article reports data on characteristics of emotional disturbance (ED) among female students with and without ED. Teachers rated a national sample of 689 girls on the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance, to measure the five characteristics of ED and a variable called social maladjustment. We compared the two categories (with ED, without ED), three school levels (elementary, middle, high), and two races (African American, European American). Girls with ED exhibited more maladaptive functioning on all variables, but category by school level and category by race interactions varied according to different characteristics. Girls with ED showed a high level of comorbid ED characteristics, again with differences by school level and race. The results have implications for understanding girls with ED and educating them appropriately.

The authors investigated the five eligibility characteristics of the federal education disability emotional disturbance (ED): inability to learn, relationship problems, inappropriate behavior, unhappiness or depression, and physical symptoms or fears. Participants were 1,210 middle or high school level students with or without ED, of three different racial/ethnic statuses and both genders. Category main effects confirmed that adolescents with ED exceed those without ED on the five characteristics; interaction effects revealed nuances. For relationship problems, students with ED exceeded peers without ED at both school levels, but for unhappiness or depression and physical symptoms or fears, only middle school students with ED had higher scores than their peers. Among students with ED, European Americans exhibited greater physical symptoms or fears than did African Americans but not Hispanics. On relationship problems, there were category-by-gender patterns unique to each raceethnic group. Results address race and ethnicity in ED identification decisions, indicate additional data needed on students with ED, and suggest research directions.

A study involving elementary students with (n=336) and without (n=548) emotional disturbance (ED) found students with ED exceeded controls on the five ED characteristics stated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which are inability to learn, relationship problems, inappropriate behavior, unhappiness or depression, and physical symptoms or fears. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Two studies on young children are reported that address the psychometric characteristics of the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance (SAED). Results from the studies indicate that the SAED is a reliable and valid instrument for identifying young children who may qualify for the federal definition of emotional disturbance. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

This study reports on the standardization of the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance. Data collected on 2,266 typical students (ages 5- 18) and 1,371 students with emotional disturbances led to the identification of six behavioral problem factors that correspond to the federal definition of emotional disturbance and were highly internally consistent. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

This article describes a points-and-levels system to improve behavior of students with learning and behavioral disabilities in an upper-elementary special education setting. The four levels each involved specified responsibilities and privileges and students earned specified numbers of points to qualify for a "successful day" and eventual promotion to the next level. Figures present record keeping forms used. (Contains 17 references.) (DB)

A study examined comorbidity of the five federal definition characteristics among 1,352 students already identified as having emotional disturbance (ED). The extent of comorbidity of ED characteristics was related to the criterion for deviance and to each of the selected student variables, particularly school level and educational placement. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Three studies are reported addressing the reliability of the Scale for Assessing Emotional Disturbance (SAED), a standardized, norm-reference measure linked to the federal definition of emotional disturbance (ED). Results indicate the SAED possesses acceptable test-retest reliability and reasonable interrater reliability and can assist in the identification of students with ED. (CR)

Describes ways in which regular elementary classroom teachers can teach social skills and address classroom relationships to facilitate social integration of mildly handicapped students into the mainstream. Recommends a directive instructions method for correcting students' social skills problems. Notes steps teachers can take to increase the chances of positive relationships that support social mainstreaming. (GLR)

A survey attempted to identify the assessment practices used in 170 school districts with programs for adolescents with behavior disorders. Results are interpreted for the areas of school policy, multidisciplinary team meetings, test instruments, and entrance and exit criteria. (DB)

This comparison of a nationally representative sample of 269 adolescents with severe emotional disturbances and 49 nonhandicapped students focuses on subjects' personal characteristics (family structure, medication status), educational characteristics (placements, extent of mainstreaming, related services, years in special education), and demographic characteristics (sex, age, race). (DB)

This article reviews the psychoeducational, behavioral, and ecological models underlying educational services to students with behavior disorders. Models are compared for their explanatory nature, implications for intervention, and how they address the scientific approach to behavior disorders. (DB)

This article describes interventions available for remediating the social and personal problems of students with learning disabilities. Problems are categorized as environmental conflicts or personal disturbances. Interventions described include contingency management, cognitive-behavioral interventions, social skills training, stimulant medication, and anxiety reduction techniques. (DB)