Search

With the selection of multiple missions to Venus by NASA and ESA planned to launch in the coming decade, we will greatly improve our understanding of Venus as a planet. However, the selected missions cannot tell us anything about the seismicity on Venus, which is a crucial observable to constrain the tectonic activity and geodynamic regime of the planet, and its interior structure. Here, we provide new, preliminary estimates of Venus’ global annual seismic budget and the expected frequency of venusquakes per year. We obtain this estimate by scaling the seismicity of the Earth recorded in the CMT catalogue. We test different potential scaling factors based on e.g., the difference in mass, radius, potential seismogenic volume, etc. We also sort the earthquakes into their respective tectonic settings, which allows us to exclude irrelevant tectonic settings present on Earth, but most likely not on Venus from our analysis. This enables us to present a range of potential seismic budgets and venusquake frequencies per tectonic setting on Venus. This then provides a new estimate of the potential amount of seismicity on Venus. However, it is uncertain how valid this simple scaling approach is from Earth to Venus. Indeed, previous attempts of scaling the volcanism of Earth to Venus (Byrne & Krishnamoorthy, 2022; Van Zelst, 2022) resulted in numbers that aligned with independent estimates, but are still unconstrained and hard to verify until the announced missions fly. Therefore, in order to provide a more robust and holistic view of Venus’ anticipated seismicity, estimates using various different, independent methods should ideally be considered.To provide exactly that, we set up the ISSI team ‘Seismicity on Venus: Prediction & Detection’. This is an interdisciplinary team of experts in seismology, geology, and geodynamics. Together we aim to assess the seismic activity on Venus from a theoretical and instrumental perspective. In addition to presenting our preliminary seismicity estimates from scaling Earth to Venus, we therefore also use this contribution to briefly introduce the team and its goals and present the preliminary findings from our first, week-long, dedicated in-person meeting aimed at further characterising Venus’ seismicity. ReferencesByrne, Paul K., and Siddharth Krishnamoorthy. "Estimates on the frequency of volcanic eruptions on Venus." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 127.1 (2022): e2021JE007040.van Zelst, Iris. "Comment on “Estimates on the Frequency of Volcanic Eruptions on Venus” by Byrne & Krishnamoorthy (2022)." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets (2022): e2022JE007448.

The surface of Titan displays evidence of fluvial and aeolian activity. Rainfall on Titan results in fluvial landforms (FLs), lakes, and seas. Unlike Earth, this rainfall is predominantly liquid methane. Titan’s surface conditions allow for liquid methane and ethane to be stable. Although the rainfall is primarily methane, this methane (liquid density ~424 kg/m3) can be photolyzed to form ethane (liquid density ~544 kg/ m3), resulting in lakes and rivers of ethane. Liquid ethane is more likely to be fed back into rivers and lakes by springs and play a formative role in the lower reaches of rivers. Changes in fluid density from the source (methane) to the terminus (ethane) of Titan’s rivers may affect the flow dynamics of the river. Methane fed rivers are likely episodically active since rainfall, which is concentrated in the poles, lasts 10-100 hours each Titan year (30 Earth years). Although precipitation is limited in the mid-latitudes, FLs have been observed in these regions. Titan is also covered by vast regions of active dune fields, primarily within the equatorial latitudes. They are composed of hydrocarbon and nitrile sand-sized particles forming from photochemical reactions in Titan’s atmosphere. Although observations of Titan are limited, interactions between rivers and dunes have been observed. Limited data availability means modelling fluvial and aeolian processes is one of the best methods to understand active and previously active processes on Titan. Here we report the initial study by the Working group on Aeolian-Fluvial Terrain Interactions (WAFTI), based at the European Space Agency, which examines the effects of these processes in synergy under Titan conditions, using a combination of modelling and geomorphological analysis. We hypothesise that these interactions could have implications for the distribution and planforms of Titan FLs. To simulate the interactions between fluvial and aeolian processes on Titan, we developed the Titan Aeolian-Fluvial Interactions model. This is a landscape evolution model based on a coupled implementation of the Caesar-Lisflood fluvial model, and Discrete ECogeomorphic Aeolian Landscape model (DECAL) dunes model. The Caesar-Lisflood fluvial model routes water over a digital elevation model and calculates erosion and deposition from fluvial and slope processes and changes elevations accordingly. The DECAL model is based on the Werner slab model of dunes, which simulates dune field development through self-organization. Several scenarios shall be modelled: (1) a continuous methane river, flowing in a straight channel with linear dunes migrating towards the channel parallel to its length; (2) a continuous methane river flowing towards a dune field with crest lines perpendicular to the direction of flow; (3) simulation scenario (1) but altered slope to represent the three different reaches (source, mid-reaches, and termination) of the channel and simulate for both methane and ethane flows by altering fluid density; (4) simulation scenario (1) with an episodically active river and continually active dunes. The findings of these simulations may help understand the drainage patterns and distribution of FLs and methane/ethane across Titan.

Aeolian and fluvial processes on Earth show significant interactions. Within terrestrial desert environments, analysis of ~200 locations has revealed that where ephemeral or episodic rivers flow across a dune field the predominant processes alternate between aeolian and fluvial, and that when rivers and dunes are active, they interact with one another. Avulsions can be major, with channels in the northern Kalahari having cumulative diversions of 10s of km. Considering Mars likely had an arid environment during the period of peak fluvial activity, the presence of fossilised Martian dunes, and observations by the Curiosity rover of fluvially altered aeolian deposits, it is apparent that Mars likely experienced simultaneous fluvial and aeolian processes, and periods of fluvial inactivity where aeolian processes persisted. At present, Martian aeolian and fluvial processes have only been studied independently, and their interaction has not been explored.Here we report the initial study by the Working group on Aeolian-Fluvial Terrain Interactions (WAFTI), based at the European Space Agency, which examines the effects of these processes in synergy under ancient Martian conditions, using a combination of modelling and geomorphological analysis. We hypothesise that these interactions could have implications for a number of Martian phenomena, for example: the prevalence of meandering inverted channel systems, the distribution of organic material, the discordance of Martian valley networks, and the sediment size and distribution of Martian rivers. In this study, we simulate the interactions between migrating dunes and different reaches of an active river channel, under ancient Martian conditions to determine the effects on the channel’s morphology and geometry.Our Martian Aeolian-Fluvial Interactions (MAFI) model is a landscape evolution model based on a coupled implementation of the Caesar-Lisflood fluvial model, and Discrete ECogeomorphic Aeolian Landscape model (DECAL) dunes model. It routes water over a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and calculates erosion and deposition from fluvial and slope processes changing elevations accordingly. Aeolian material is discretized into slabs on the DEM, and slabs are moved across the space according to a set of simple rules.At EGU we will present the results of our simulations of aeolian and fluvial interactions on an inclined plane with a central channel and a continuously flowing Martian river. Typically on Mars, channels are housed within valleys with V or U-shaped cross-sections. Additionally, the topography of Mars is heavily altered by impact craters, many of which are sediment sinks. Finally, the profiles and immaturity of Martian valleys indicate that they were likely ephemeral/episodic, so flow was unlikely to be continuous. We, therefore, plan to expand our study to simulate the following: (1) simulate continuous flow for a DEM with a V-shaped valley and central channel; (2) “” U-shaped valley and central channel; (3) “” for a DEM with a crater present adjacent to the part of the valley; (4) simulate episodic fluid flow with periods of no fluvial activity, but continued aeolian activity. Understanding these two major surface processes in synergy will aid in the reconstruction of Mars’ ancient paleoenvironments in a way that has not previously been explored.

Introduction Studies are underway to provide solutions to bring the Rosalind Franklin rover to Mars (Figure 1). Complementing the ExoMars 2016 mission involving the Trace Gas Orbiter and Schiaparelli spacecraft [1, 2], the second ExoMars mission’s science objectives are to search for signs of past and present life, and to investigate the subsurface water/geochemical environment as a function of depth [3, 4]. We report on work by the Science Team to finalise preparations that would have been needed for a launch in 2022, and that remain essential for readiness at a future launch date. Figure 1. Rover Science Operations Working Group (RSOWG) The ExoMars RSOWG was chartered in 2019 to advance the state of preparation for Rover science operations within the science team. Sub-groups are tasked with addressing specific needs: RSOWG-Micro address topics regarding the spatial scale of the samples that will be extracted from down to 2m by the rover’s drill, their analogues, and plans for their analyses. Notable recent work by the Micro sub-group has included (i) Recommending a sequence of rover activities following commissioning, named ‘Science.0’. The goal of the Science.0 activities is to prime the rover’s analytical laboratory and characterise its initial state prior to commencing analysis to search for biosignatures on Mars samples. (ii) Running a process to propose, select and analyse a set of ‘Mission Reference Samples’ – a suite of analogue samples most relevant to the landing site and mission objectives to be characterized by ground models of the MicrOmega [5], RLS [6] and MOMA [7] instruments. RSOWG-Macro address topics using the wealth of remote sensing data amassed by orbiter missions, and at rover to regional spatial scales. In 2020-2021 the Macro group performed a group mapping exercise of the Oxia Planum landing site [8] to develop understanding of the site’s stratigraphy and geological history [9]. A related output has been the publication of a corresponding Geographic Framework [10], to be used during simulations and operations. Other RSOWG-Macro activities have included defining how to initialise the mission’s ‘Strategic Plan’ upon landing, building a version-controlled repository of orbital data products, and establishing conventions for naming features and places at the landing site. The RSOWG Simulations Planning Group comprises a team of ‘Simulation Officers’, nominated from Pasteur Payload Teams, ESA and industry. In 2021 they were tasked with designing and leading a series of ‘RSOWG Simulations’, an early series of team simulations that were intended to rehearse and refine strategic science processes. Scenarios, entitled ‘After Landing’, ‘Site Survey’, ‘Opportunistic science trade-off’ and ‘ALD Analyses’, required science data interpretation, rover activity planning, and decision making at strategic level, and used data from all 9 Pasteur Payload instruments. Lessons learned from early simulations, inform planning of future simulations and exercises, including those prepared by the Rover Operations Control Centre (ROCC – Turin, Italy) for training and certification of team members for operations. During 2022 and beyond, RSOWG are focussing on maturing the mission’s ‘Strategic Plan’, which provides traceability from the Rover mission science objectives to individual rover and instrument activities, taking into account the realities of the landing site. The RSOWG is tasked to form the Strategic Plan by 1) identifying questions that stem from the Rover mission science objectives and organizing them into scientific priorities, 2) defining hypotheses that should be tested using rover instruments, and 3) identifying targets and ‘skeleton’ plans of activities that could be performed by the rover and its instruments that would address specific groups of hypotheses. Plans, People, and Processes Some aspects of science operations preparations lie outside the responsibility of RSOWG, and are complementary to the industry-led development and testing of systems and rover operations at the ROCC. The ‘Science Operations Plan’ was developed to ensure that daily science operations processes in Tactical and Strategic planning cycles (Figure 2) are complete, robust, transparent, efficient, and collegiate. The plan complements ground and flight control procedures, and covers science team organization, communication, journaling, science-specific tools, and designated roles. Figure 2: Illustration of Tactical planning (synchronized with orbiter overflights) and Strategic Planning (office hours) shifts as they relate to UTC and Local Mean Solar Time at Oxia Planum. The 'Strategic Plan' guides and governs the decisions made during planning cycles. The rover long-term data archive, hosted on the ESA Planetary Science Archive (PSA) [11], will contain not only data from science instruments in the Pasteur Payload, but also data regarding the Rosalind Franklin rover’s journey through Oxia Planum. This is achieved via the ‘Science Target Scheme’, which prescribes data structures and links between them for a hierarchy of target classes from landing site to sample analysis scales. The Sample Analysis Protocol (SAP), in preparation, builds on the ExoMars Biosignature Score (EBS) [3], and is intended define the investigations and metrics for establishing and reporting whether a location on Mars has hosted microbial life, past or present. Finally, analyses and bespoke tools support needs in areas such as staffing, sequence optimisation for rover activities, and ‘trade-sheets’ [12] to aid decision-making for science targets. Acknowledgments We thank the ExoMars Pasteur Payload, Science, and Industrial Teams, for their profound continuing efforts to prepare the first European Mars rover mission that will search for signs of life on Mars. References [1] Vago, J. L. et al., (2015) Sol. Syst. Res. 49 (7), 518–528. [2] Svedhem, H. et al., (2020) 14th Eur. Sci. Congr. 2020, held virtually, 21 Sept. 2020 - 9 October, 2020. Abs. EPSC2020-802. [3] Vago, J. L. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 471–510. [4] Thomas, N. et al., (2017) Space Sci. Rev. 212 (3–4), 1897–1944. [5] Bibring, J.-P. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 621–626. [6] Rull, F. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 627–654. [7] Goesmann, F. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 655–685. [8] Sefton-Nash, E. et al., (2021) in 52nd Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. [9] P. Fawdon, et al. (2022) in Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., LPI. [10] Fawdon, P. et al., (2021) J. Maps 17 (2), 762–778. [11] Lim, T.-L. et al., (2021) in 5th Planet. Data Work. Planet. Sci. Informatics Anal., Vol. 2549. [12] Torres, I. et al., (2022) '“Trade-Off” Tools to Quantify Biosignature Potentials for Future ExoMars Rover Mission Operations', This Conference.

ESA and ROSCOSMOS’ Luna 27 mission will explore the south polar region of the Moon and will sample the lunar surface. To ensure the best samples are collected, which yield the greatest scientific return eight potential landing sites are being investigated using remote sensing methods. We have studied the safety of the eight potential landing sites by creating slope maps using the LOLA (30m/px) digital elevation model and classified slopes into safe areas (slopes 10°). Additionally, we created slope maps classified in 2° intervals from 0-14° and greater than 14°, to further investigate which areas have the lowest slopes and therefore potentially the safest landing sites. We found that each of the eight landing sites contain areas that are safe for landing (slopes 500 km2) that are classified as safe for landing. Site 3 has large craters with steep crater walls, which may present a hazard to landing. At site 5 there is a large crater (~20 km diameter) to the bottom right of the site, which has a steep crater walls and rim, which creates a topographic ridge in the south east of the landing site and should be avoided as a landing site. Site 7 also has a steep topographic ridge which again should be avoided as a landing area. In comparison site 8 contains a large area with shallow slopes in the center with slopes of 0-2°, which would be an ideal landing site. Site 1 covers a large crater (~40 km diameter), and the center of the crater floor has shallow slopes with less than 4°. Site 2 similarly has a large crater floor with slopes less than 4°. Both the crater floors of site 1 and site 2 could be a safe landing site. This initial investigation into the potential landing sites has identified areas which could be safe for landing Luna 27. Future work will use multiple datasets to explore the scientific potential of the landing sites including investigating the surface roughness, identifying craters and boulders, which could present a hazard to the lander, using thermal maps to measure the thermal stability, and exploring the illumination conditions and Earth visibility at each of the landing sites.

1. Introduction The ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars 2022 Mission [1] will deliver the Rosalind Franklin Rover and Kazachock Surface Platform to the Oxia Planum landing site on Mars [2, 3]. The launch window opens on 20 September 2022 with a corresponding Mars arrival on 10 June 2023. The Rover’s mission objectives are to search for signs of life and characterise the shallow subsurface. During its 211 sol nominal mission ‘Rosalind Franklin’ will accomplish its objectives using its ‘Pasteur’ Payload of 9 instruments, plus a drilling system capable of extracting samples from down to 2m for analysis. 2. Mission Status Tests and reviews to confirm overall spacecraft readiness are proceeding, including a campaign of High Altitude Drop Tests (HADTs) on the parachute system. Activities at the Rover Operations Control Centre (ROCC) —located at ALTEC, Turin (IT)— are ramping up. Software systems used during the mission for planning are being tested and refined, and the Control and Science Teams are working together to train for the day-to-day operations environment. 3. Spacecraft Control The ROCC can be considered an Activity Plan factory for the Rosalind Franklin rover. The ROCC is designed to support ESOC (European Space Operations Centre) during the launch, LEOP (Launch and Early Orbit Phase), when conducting periodic checkouts of the rover and instruments in interplanetary cruise, and to perform rover mission operations on Mars. A partner facility in Moscow, the Surface Platform Payload Operations Control Centre (SPOCC), controls the Kazachok Surface Platform. The Science Team and the rover Control Team work together at the ROCC (including by remote connection) to conduct two parallel and connected processes. The Strategic process, performed during office hours, is the top-level process to plan rover activities. It proceeds via daily structured work and meetings. Strategic planning aims to achieve the rover mission objectives and maximize scientific return, and it is dynamic; adjusting to new scientific findings and interpretations. Strategic planning is done on 3 timescales: short term (next sol), medium term (within the current mission phase), and long-term (the next major mission phase plus objectives that could be addressed further in the future). The Tactical process is the sequence of events triggered by the downlink of rover data to ROCC following an orbiter pass. It ends with uplink of validated activity plans to the rover for execution. Tactical planning is done on a schedule synchronised with downlink and uplink via Mars orbiters. Figure 1: Illustration of scheduling strategic and tactical processes. 4. Strategic Plan The Strategic Plan provides traceability from the top-level mission science objectives to individual rover activities. It provides the scientific context and background for how the mission science is organised. The Rover Science Operations Working Group (RSOWG) is building the Strategic Plan for the rover via 3 main tasks: Define scientific questions elaborated from the mission objectives. From these questions, construct corresponding hypotheses that are testable by rover instruments at the Oxia Planum landing site. Prepare preliminary instrument command sequences and potential targets to test the hypotheses. Upon landing, the Strategic Plan will be ‘initialised’ at the landing point by the Science Team. They will interpret new data, assess locations to perform initial activities, and set long-term objectives. 5. Science Targets The ‘Science Target Scheme’ has been conceived for use in daily science operations in order to harmonize the description of the places and features observed by the Rosalind Franklin rover during the mission, and the links between them. It is integrated into software tools running at the ROCC, and the data submitted to ESA’s Planetary Science Archive (PSA). It is a hierarchical schema of 10 classes representing objects at spatial scales relevant to Rover science, from areas identified in orbital data, down to spots on crushed samples analysed by instruments in the Rovers’ Analytical Laboratory Drawer, ALD [see 1]. A concept showing use of several target types used during the Post-Landing-To-Egress (PLTE) mission phase is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Concept for use of science targets in the PLTE mission phase (expected to last ~10 sols). 6. Team Simulations During 2021-2023 a programme of simulations is being performed for training and certification of the team for operations. A subset of simulations in the programme are planned and run by the RSOWG. These allow the Science Team to test and refine their processes, for example to perform decision-making in the time-limited operations environment, and to rehearse several designated roles (e.g. Journal Keeper, Long Term Planner). RSOWG simulations are planned by a dedicated Simulations Planning Group composed of science, project and industrial team representatives. They use inputs from all Rover instrument teams, and lessons learned from analogue campaigns [e.g. 4] and other information, to design the scenarios determined to be most fruitful for maturing scientific processes. 7. ‘Micro’ and ‘Macro’ working groups The RSOWG has chartered the ‘Micro’ and ‘Macro’ sub-working groups with a broad mandate to prepare for and optimise aspects of science operations at those spatial scales. For example, the Micro group works on the protocol for assessment of sample analyses, and builds knowledge of sample types using terrestrial analogues. While the Macro group, for example, provides a detailed morphostratigraphic map of the landing site as input to building the strategic plan [5], and prepares the geospatial data layers used in operations. Both groups also work together on important topics that span orbital to sample spatial scales, such as interpreting orbital spectroscopic and geomorphological data to set and refine mineralogical expectations for mission samples. Acknowledgements The authors wish to sincerely thank the ExoMars 2022 Science Team and Industrial Teams for their continuing tireless efforts to ensure readiness for operations. References [1] Vago, J. L. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 471–510, doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1533 [2] Quantin-Nataf, C. et al., (2021) Astrobiology 21 (3), doi:10.1089/ast.2019.2191 [3] Mandon, L. et al., (2021), Astrobiology 21 (4), doi:10.1089/ast.2020.2292. [4] Balme, M. R. et al., (2019) Planet. Space Sci. 165, 31–5. [5] Sefton-Nash, E. et al., (2021) in LPSC 52, #1947.

ESA’s current Mars exploration programme consists of the flying orbiters Mars Express and the ExoMars TGO, while the ExoMars rover is planned for launch in 2022. The Nov 2019 ESA Council of Ministers meeting, Space19+, has approved ESA contributions to a Mars Sample Return Campaign, led by NASA, with a launch of the sample retrieval missions planned to occur as early as 2026. The ExoMars and Mars Sample Return (MSR) missions will expand our understanding of Martian history, potential for life and environmental conditions. These missions will develop European technologies and capabilities to enable access to Mars orbit, Mars surface and shallow sub-surface as well as a round-trip journey. However, key strategic knowledge gaps will still remain for the human exploration of Mars following successful ExoMars and MSR missions. These include the understanding of the long-term behaviour of the atmosphere, wind profiles, dust properties and transport and origin of dust storms. A study was undertaken in the Concurrent Design Facility (CDF) at ESA, ESTEC in order to address this important knowledge gap through a reference mission architecture that would be the first coordinated global, regional and local network of atmospheric science and weather stations at Mars. The reference launch date for the mission is in the early-mid 2030’s. The selected mission architecture comprises several elements, including: A Low Mars Orbiter (LMO), in a high-inclination orbit; An Areosynchronous Orbiter (ASO) situated at the same longitude as the landers Four identical Mars landers comprising: 3 “local” landers in a triangular configuration situated 20km-150km apart 1 “regional” lander situated ~800km West of the local lander network Two carrier spacecraft each carrying two Mars landers from Earth to Mars atmospheric entry. The primary science objectives focus on meteorology, wind and dust transport measurements from the orbital and landed assets. In addition, the landers also contain a radio science, seismology and heat flow payload suite to address secondary science objectives. Due to the scale of the mission and large number of sizeable mission elements, the architecture was spilt into a two-launch scenario where the first launch comprises the two orbiter spacecraft, and the second launch (in the next launch window opportunity) comprises the two carrier spacecraft each carrying two landers. Due to this large scope, the CDF study focussed on the design of the four Mars landers and the Areosynchronous orbiter, the definition of the science payloads, the overall concept of operations, cost and programmatics. The study results show the technical feasibility of such a mission to be undertaken in the 2030’s at landing sites between 0°N and 20°N latitude whilst utilising existing European heritage in chemical propulsion Orbiters and ballistic Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) technology. Challenges for the lander elements include the need for radioisotope heater units (RHUs), large solar arrays and energy-efficient platform and payload operations, all driven by the need to survive for multiple Mars years on the surface including science operations through potential global dust storms. Further work to refine the mission concept is planned. Figure 1: Mars Long-Lived Weather Network Mission Architecture Figure 2: Conceptual design of one of the four Mars landers showing the location of the science instruments

Oxia Planum (OP), located at the transition between the ancient terrain of Arabia Terra and the low lying basin of Chryse Planitia, will be the landing site for the ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars Programme’s 2022 mission [1]. The descent module and landing platform, Kazachock, will transport the Rosalind Franklin Rover to search for signs of past and present life on Mars, and investigate the geochemical environment in the shallow subsurface over a 211-sol nominal mission.OP forms a shallow basin, open to the north, characterized by clay-bearing bedrock, and episodic geological activity spans from the ~mid-Noachian to ~early Amazonian in age [2,3,4]. Building a thorough understanding of Oxia Planum prior to operations will provide testable hypotheses that facilitate interpretation of results, and hence provide an effective approach to address the mission’s science objectives. To this end, we have run a detailed group mapping campaign at HiRISE-scale using the Multi-Mission Geographic Information System (MMGIS) [5], co-registered HRSC [6], CaSSIS and HiRISE mosaics [7], and 116 1km2 quads covering the 1-sigma landing ellipse envelope. Complementary CTX-scale mapping covers the wider area around the landing site and is described elsewhere [8].Throughout 2020, 84 mapping volunteers associated with the mission’s Rover Science Operations Working Group followed a pre-formulated programme of training, familiarisation and mapping. With the mapping phase complete, a small sub-team are focused on map reconciliation phase, comprising data cleaning and science decision making. The process will culminate in map finalisation and submission for publication, and use in activities to plan rover science activities.This campaign yields important advances for overall science readiness of the ExoMars 2022 mission:Team experience working, communicating and learning together, valuable for operations. Building team knowledge of the landing site, and the main scientific interpretations. Curated datasets and software available for team use in ongoing planning. High-resolution map data representing our geologic understanding of Oxia Planum. This is an input to ongoing RSOWG work to construct the mission strategic plan, which provides science traceability from mission objectives to rover activities.Acknowledgments: We thank Fred Calef and Tariq Soliman at JPL for their support regarding MMGIS.References: [1] Vago, J. L. et al., (2017) Astrobiology 17 (6–7), 471–510. [2] Carter, J. et al., (2013) J. Geophys. Res. 118 (4), 831–858. [3] Quantin-Nataf, C. et al., (2021) Astrobiol. 21 (3), doi:10.1089/ast.2019.2191. [4] Fawdon P. et al., (2019) LPSC50 #2132. [5] Calef, F. J. et al., (2019) in 4th Planet. Data Work., Vol. 2151. [6] Gwinner, K. et al., (2016) Planet. Space Sci. 126, 93–138. [7] Volat, M. et al., (2020), EPSC, #564. [8] Hauber, E. et al. (2021), LPSC52.

ESA’s current Mars exploration programme consists of the flying orbiters Mars Express and the Exomars TGO, while the Exomars rover is planned for launch in 2022. The Nov 2019 ESA Council of Ministers meeting, Space19+, has approved ESA contributions to a Mars Sample Return Campaign, led by NASA, with a launch of the sample retrieval missions planned to occur as early as 2026. While the vast majority of ESA’s funding for Mars exploration in 2020’s is planned to be invested in Mars Sample Return, there is interest to assess, at Phase 0-level, the possibility of implementing a small mission to Mars in parallel with or soon after the completion of the MSR programme, in order to further the exploration of Mars in areas not directly addressed by MSR. A study was undertaken in the Concurrent Design Facility at ESA, ESTEC in order to assess low cost mission architectures for small satellite missions to Mars. Given strict programmatic constraints, the focus of the study was on a low cost, short mission development schedule with a cost-driven spacecraft design and mission architecture. Three mission cases were studied: Mars Communications Constellation Mission: A three satellite constellation with an objective to provide data relay with continuous coverage to ground assets. The satellites also contain a secondary science instrument. Mars Science Orbiter Mission: A single satellite science orbiter with a primary science objective and a secondary objective to provide a data relay. Mars Hard Lander / Penetrator Mission: A demonstration mission of a carrier module and N hard landers/penetrators. The study assessed a wide range of mission architectures and focused on commercial rideshare options to GTO from which the satellite(s) would transfer to Mars utilising either chemical or electric propulsion. The study results showing the feasibility of such missions meeting the programmatic constraints and options for future work will be presented.

The crater record of a planetary surface unit is often analyzed by its cumulative size‐frequency distribution (CSFD). Measuring CSFDs involves traditional approaches, such as traditional crater counting (TCC) and buffered crater counting (BCC), as well as geometric corrections, such as nonsparseness correction (NSC) and buffered nonsparseness correction (BNSC). NSC and BNSC consider the effects of geometric crater obliteration on the CSFD. On the Moon, crater obliteration leads to two distinct states in which obtained CSFDs do not match the production CSFD—crater equilibrium and nonsparseness. Crater equilibrium occurs when each new impact erases a preexisting crater of the same size. It is clearly observed on lunar terrains dominated by small simple craters with steep‐sloped production CSFDs, such as Imbrian to Eratosthenian‐era mare units. Nonsparseness, on the other hand, is caused by the geometric overlap of preexisting craters by a new impact, which is also known as “cookie cutting.” Cookie cutting is most clearly observed on lunar terrains dominated by large craters with shallow‐sloped production CSFDs, such as the pre‐Nectarian lunar highlands. We use the Cratered Terrain Evolution Model (CTEM) to simulate the evolution of a pre‐Nectarian surface unit. The model was previously used to simulate the diffusion‐induced equilibrium for small craters of the lunar maria. We find that relative to their size, large craters contribute less to the diffusion of the surrounding landscape than small craters. Thus, a simple scale dependence cannot account for the per‐crater contribution to degradation by small simple and large complex craters., Plain Language Summary: Impact cratering is the dominant surface process on the Moon due to the absence of an atmosphere and limited geological activity. On most lunar terrains, the degradation and erasure of craters are caused by new impacts. Most small craters degrade differently than very large craters. Fresh, small craters have a bowl‐shaped form, and they get shallower over time until they cannot be seen anymore. This process is called diffusive degradation and is caused by the cumulative effects of craters that form in the surrounding area. Small craters are only rarely removed by the direct overlap of larger craters, known as “cookie cutting.” In contrast, large craters are more likely to be lost by cookie cutting. We use a computer model to simulate an old lunar surface with many large craters, where small and large craters have the same relative influence on the diffusive degradation of the surrounding terrain. The same model has been used to simulate how small craters degrade. When we apply this model to terrains dominated by very large craters, we find that the simple scaling no longer holds and, proportional to their size, small craters contribute more to diffusive degradation of the surrounding area than large craters., Key Points: We model the surface evolution for a pre‐Nectarian lunar surface unit. Relative to their size, large craters are less destructive to the surrounding terrain than small simple craters. A simple scale dependence from small to large craters does not explain the per‐crater contribution to topographic diffusion of large craters., German Research Foundation (DFG), German Aerospace Center (DLR) http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002946, German Research Foundation http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100005970

After the successful landing of the Mars Science Laboratory rover, both NASA and ESA initiated a selection process for potential landing sites for the Mars2020 and ExoMars missions, respectively. Two ellipses located in the Mawrth Vallis region were proposed and evaluated during a series of meetings (three for Mars2020 mission and five for ExoMars). We describe here the regional context of the two proposed ellipses as well as the framework of the objectives of these two missions. Key science targets of the ellipses and their astrobiological interests are reported. This work confirms that the proposed ellipses contain multiple past martian wet environments of a subaerial, subsurface, and/or subaqueous character, in which to probe the past climate of Mars; build a broad picture of possible past habitable environments; evaluate their exobiological potentials; and search for biosignatures in well-preserved rocks. A mission scenario covering several key investigations during the nominal mission of each rover is also presented, as well as descriptions of how the site fulfills the science requirements and expectations of

Mercury has one of the best‐preserved impact records in the inner solar system due to the absence of an atmosphere and relatively unmodified ancient surface. However, our knowledge of the early impact record and the nature of the impacting projectiles are far from complete. To get a better understanding of the early impact history, we examined large impact basins (D ≥ 300 km) on Mercury. Here we cataloged 94 basins, 80 of which we classify as certain or probable, 1.7 times more than previously recognized. We re‐evaluate the crater densities of basins using the buffered nonsparseness correction technique, which we successfully applied for the Moon. In contrast with a previous study, we find that basins have a slightly higher N(300) crater density on Mercury than on the Moon, but similar N(500) basin densities. Based on these results and comparison with the Moon, we infer that no more than half of the basin record remains observable and basins older than Borealis have generally been erased from the basin record. Furthermore, we establish the stratigraphic relationships of basins based on N(25) crater frequencies, absolute model ages, and observations of crosscutting relationships. Similarly to our previous study on the Moon, we found no evidence for a change in the size‐frequency distribution of the impacting population; thus, our results are consistent with a single impactor population that bombarded Mercury's surface., Key Points: We cataloged 94 basins on Mercury, 1.7 times more certain and probable basins than in previous works. We observe roughly half of the basin record, where basins older than Borealis are completely erased. Our results are consistent with a single impactor population that bombarded the surface of Mercury., SFB/TRR‐170, A3, German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft‐ und Raumfahrt) http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002946, NASA Discovery Data Analysis Program grant, Analysis of Large‐scale Resurfacing Processes on Mercury, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659

After the successful landing of the Mars Science Laboratory rover, both NASA and ESA initiated a selection process for potential landing sites for the Mars2020 and ExoMars missions, respectively. Two ellipses located in the Mawrth Vallis region were proposed and evaluated during a series of meetings (3 for Mars2020 mission and 5 for ExoMars). We describe here the regional context of the two proposed ellipses as well as the framework of the objectives of these two missions. Key science targets of the ellipses and their astrobiological interests are reported. This work confirms the proposed ellipses contain multiple past Martian wet environments of subaerial, subsurface and/or subaqueous character, in which to probe the past climate of Mars, build a broad picture of possible past habitable environments, evaluate their exobiological potentials and search for biosignatures in well-preserved rocks. A mission scenario covering several key investigations during the nominal mission of each rover is also presented, as well as descriptions of how the site fulfills the science requirements and expectations of in situ martian exploration. These serve as a basis for potential future exploration of the Mawrth Vallis region with new missions and describe opportunities for human exploration of Mars in terms of resources and science discoveries.

International audience; We used a grid-mapping technique to analyze the distribution of 13 water- and ice-related landforms in Acidalia Planitia as part of a joint effort to study the three main basins in the northern lowlands of Mars, that is, Acidalia, Utopia, and Arcadia Planitiae. The landforms were mapped at full Context Camera resolution along a 300-km-wide strip from 20 degrees N to 84 degrees N. We identified four landform assemblages: (1) Geologically recent polar cap (massive ice), which superposes the latitude-dependent mantle (LDM) (LA1); (2) ice-related landforms, such as LDM, textured terrain, small-scale polygons, scalloped terrain, large-scale viscous flow features, and gullies, which have an overlapping distribution (LA2); (3) surface features possibly related to water and subsurface sediment mobilization (LA3; kilometer-scale polygons, large pitted mounds, small pitted mounds, thumbprint terrain); and (4) irregularly shaped pits with raised rims on equator-facing slopes. Pits are likely the result of an energetic release of volatiles (H2O, CO2, and CH4), rather than impact-, volcanism-, or wind-related processes. LDM occurs ubiquitously from 44 degrees N to 78 degrees N in Acidalia Planitia. Various observations suggest an origin of air fall deposition of LDM, which contains less ice in the uppermost tens of meters in Acidalia Planitia than in Arcadia and Utopia Planitiae. However, LDM may be thicker and more extended in the past in Acidalia Planitia. The transition between LDM-free terrain and LDM is situated further north than in Utopia and Arcadia Planitiae, suggesting different past and/or present climatic conditions among the main basins in the northern lowlands.Plain Language Summary We studied water and ice-related landforms in the Acidalia Planitia, Mars. We used a new approach, a grid system of 20x20-km cells, along a 300-km-wide strip (east-west) from latitude 20 degrees N to 84 degrees N (south-north). This work is a joint effort to study three major basins in the northern plains: Acidalia, Utopia, and Arcadia Planitiae. We conducted a regional mapping of specific landforms at 6m/pixel resolution data and compared the results to different data products, such as geological maps, topography, radar, and climatic models. We proved that latitude-dependent mantle occurs from 44 degrees N to 78 degrees N in Acidalia Planitia and has an air fall origin related to past climatic cycles. These deposits are composed of mixture of fine-grained ice and dust. The distribution of this landform extends further south in Utopia and Arcadia Planitae suggesting different past/present climatic conditions in the northern lowlands.

International audience; A project of mapping ice-related landforms was undertaken to understand the role of subsurface ice in the northern plains. This work is the first continuous regional mapping from CTX (ConTeXt Camera, 6m/pixel; Malin et al., ) imagery in Arcadia Planitia along a strip 300km across stretching from 30 degrees N to 80 degrees N centered on the 170 degrees W line of longitude. The distribution and morphotypes of these landforms were used to understand the permafrost cryolithology. The mantled and textured signatures occur almost ubiquitously between 35 degrees N and 78 degrees N and have a positive spatial correlation with inferred ice stability based on thermal modeling, neutron spectroscopy, and radar data. The degradational features into the LDM (latitude-dependent mantle) include pits, scallops, and 100-m polygons and provide supporting evidence for subsurface ice and volatile loss between 35 and 70 degrees N in Arcadia with the mantle between 70 and 78 degrees N appearing much more intact. Pitted terrain appears to be much more pervasive in Arcadia than in Acidalia and Utopia suggesting that the Arcadia study area had more widespread near-surface subsurface ice and thus was more susceptible to pitting or that the ice was less well buried by sediments. Correlations with ice stability models suggest that lack of pits north of 65-70 degrees N could indicate a relatively young age (similar to 1Ma); however, this could also be explained through regional variations in degradation rates. The deposition of the LDM is consistent with an air fall hypothesis; however, there appears to be substantial evidence for fluvial processes in southern Arcadia with older, underlying processes being equally dominant with the LDM and degradation thereof in shaping the landscape.Plain Language Summary We mapped ice-related landforms In Arcadia on the northern plains of Mars. This was the first continuous map at this scale. The maps of these ice related landforms were used to understand the role of ice has in shaping the Martian landscape. We found evidence that suggest that ground ice occurs almost everywhere between 35 degrees N and 78 degrees N. We also found landforms associated with loss of ground ice to be widespread suggesting that Arcadia used to have even more ground ice in the recent past. The pattern of landforms we see suggests that the ground ice is sourced from the air, either as snowfall or direct condensation onto or into the near surface.

This work in Utopia Planitia is the first continuous regional mapping of ice‐related landforms integrated into an effort to study the three main basins (Arcadia, Acidalia, and Utopia Planitiae) in the northern plains. The distribution and morphotypes of these landforms, SHAllow RADar detections, and crater size‐frequency distribution measurements (>50 m in diameter) were used to understand the permafrost cryolithology and its past evolution in relation to climate in Utopia Planitia. Three assemblages of landforms were identified based on their spatial correlation and correlation with Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter surface roughness along a strip from 30°N to 80°N. At 30°–38°N, the assemblage is formed by kilometer‐scale polygons, high‐albedo mounds, and thumbprint terrains. This assemblage is associated with a lobate deposit of 30 m in thickness with a crater retention age of 1 Ga. At 38°–47°N, the assemblage is comprised of large scallops, 100‐m‐diameter polygons, pits, and mantled deposits. This assemblage is correlated with a deposit of 80 m in thickness containing excess ice (~50–85% by volume) with a crater retention age of about 10 Ma. At 47°–78°N, the assemblage is composed of mantled deposits, textured terrains, and 30‐m‐diameter polygons. This assemblage is related to the ice‐rich, debris‐covered, latitude‐dependent mantle that has a crater retention age of about 1.5 Ma. Utopia Planitia appears to be a region of combined depositions of sediment and continuous cold climatic conditions that leaded to a complex distribution of ground ice.

This work was carried out through the 2016 Exploration Science Summer Intern Program hosted by the Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) and Johnson Space Center (JSC). This research was supported in part by the NASA Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute (SSERVI). This study explores the Design Reference Mission (DRM) architecture developed by Hufenbach et al. (2015) as a prelude to the release of the 2018 Global Exploration Roadmap (GER) developed by the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG). The focus of this study is the exploration of the south polar region of the Moon, a region that has not been visited by any human missions, yet exhibits a multitude of scientifically important locations – the investigation of which will address long standing questions in lunar research. This DRM architecture involves five landing sites (Malapert massif, South Pole /Shackleton crater, Schrödinger basin, Antoniadi crater, and the South Pole-Aitken basin center), to be visited in sequential years by crew, beginning in 2028. Two Lunar Electric Rovers (LER) are proposed to be tele-robotically operated between sites to rendez-vous with crew at the time of the next landing. With engineering parameters in mind we explore the feasibility of tele-robotic operation of these LERs between lunar landing sites, and identify potential high interest sampling locations en-route. Additionally, in-depth sample collection and return traverses are identified for each individual landing site across key geologic terrains that also detail crew Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA). Exploration at and between landing sites is designed to address a suite of National Research Council (National Research Council, 2007) scientific concepts. Postprint

International audience; The investigation of the Martian surface through remote sensing allowed the identification of mound-like topo-graphically positive features that, based on geomorphological observations, have been ascribed to different phenomena. New observations will be performed in the forthcoming future to look for possible methane sources, hence discriminating morphologically similar features is a key objective to efficiently investigate and target the Martian surface. Here, we performed fractal analysis on five Martian fields of mound-like features that have been interpreted respectively as mud volcanoes, pingos, tumuli, rootless cones and monogenetic volcanic vents successfully validating the major interpretations of these features and in turn, the applicability of the fractal clustering method for discriminating among such features. Indeed, this technique is able to assess if the analyzed features are directly related to underlying systems of connected percolating fracture networks and estimates their extension in the subsurface. Accordingly, volcanic vents and mud volcanoes appeared to be connected to percolating systems involving several kilometers of crust, pingos and tumuli resulted to be unequivocally unrelated to active percolating fractures while rootless cones outputted weak relationship with shallow active fracture systems.

International audience; The increased volume, spatial resolution, and areal coverage of high-resolution images of Mars over the past 15 years have led to an increased quantity and variety of small-scale landform identifications. Though many such landforms are too small to represent individually on regional-scale maps, determining their presence or absence across large areas helps form the observational basis for developing hypotheses on the geological nature and environmental history of a study area. The combination of improved spatial resolution and near-continuous coverage significantly increases the time required to analyse the data. This becomes problematic when attempting regional or global-scale studies of metre and decametre-scale landforms. Here, we describe an approach for mapping small features (from decimetre to kilometre scale) across large areas, formulated for a project to study the northern plains of Mars, and provide context on how this method was developed and how it can be implemented. Rather than “mapping” with points and polygons, grid-based mapping uses a “tick box” approach to efficiently record the locations of specific landforms (we use an example suite of glacial landforms; including viscous flow features, the latitude dependant mantle and polygonised ground). A grid of squares (e.g. 20 km by 20 km) is created over the mapping area. Then the basemap data are systematically examined, grid-square by grid-square at full resolution, in order to identify the landforms while recording the presence or absence of selected landforms in each grid-square to determine spatial distributions. The result is a series of grids recording the distribution of all the mapped landforms across the study area. In some ways, these are equivalent to raster images, as they show a continuous distribution-field of the various landforms across a defined (rectangular, in most cases) area. When overlain on context maps, these form a coarse, digital landform map. We find that grid-based mapping provides an efficient solution to the problems of mapping small landforms over large areas, by providing a consistent and standardised approach to spatial data collection. The simplicity of the grid-based mapping approach makes it extremely scalable and workable for group efforts, requiring minimal user experience and producing consistent and repeatable results. The discrete nature of the datasets, simplicity of approach, and divisibility of tasks, open up the possibility for citizen science in which crowdsourcing large grid-based mapping areas could be applied.

We report on the MARS2013 mission, a 4-week Mars analog field test in the northern Sahara. Nineteen experiments were conducted by a field crew in Morocco under simulated martian surface exploration conditions, supervised by a Mission Support Center in Innsbruck, Austria. A Remote Science Support team analyzed field data in near real time, providing planning input for the management of a complex system of field assets; two advanced space suit simulators, four robotic vehicles, an emergency shelter, and a stationary sensor platform in a realistic work flow were coordinated by a Flight Control Team. A dedicated flight planning group, external control centers for rover tele-operations, and a biomedical monitoring team supported the field operations. A 10 min satellite communication delay and other limitations pertinent to human planetary surface activities were introduced. The fields of research for the experiments were geology, human factors, astrobiology, robotics, tele-science, exploration, and operations research. This paper provides an overview of the geological context and environmental conditions of the test site and the mission architecture, in particular the communication infrastructure emulating the signal travel time between Earth and Mars. We report on the operational work flows and the experiments conducted, including a deployable shelter prototype for multiple-day extravehicular activities and contingency situations.

Martian caves are regarded as one of the most interesting locations in which to search for life on the planet. Data obtained during the MARS2013 expedition at Hamar Laghdad Ridge in the Tafilalt region of Morocco indicate that even small cavities can display thermal behavior that is characteristic for caves. For example, temperature in a cavity equaled 14°C±0.1°C before sunrise, which was higher than the temperature of the ambient air (10°C±0.1°C) and proximate rocks (9°C±0.1°C) at the same time. Within 30 min after sunrise, when the temperature of surrounding rocks corresponded to 15°C, this thermal relationship reversed. Measurements were conducted under simulated spaceflight conditions, including near-real-time interpretation of data that were acquired in a complex flight planning environment. We conclude that using ground-based thermal contrast measurements, in 7-14 μm band before and after sunset, is an effective method for Mars astronauts to identify caves, possibly superior to usage of space-based or ground-penetrating data.

We have developed a portable dual-wavelength laser fluorescence spectrometer as part of a multi-instrument optical probe to characterize mineral, organic, and microbial species in extreme environments. Operating at 405 and 532 nm, the instrument was originally designed for use by human explorers to produce a laser-induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) spectral database of the mineral and organic molecules found in the microbial communities of Earth's cryosphere. Recently, our team had the opportunity to explore the strengths and limitations of the instrument when it was deployed on a remote-controlled Mars analog rover. In February 2013, the instrument was deployed on board the Magma White rover platform during the MARS2013 Mars analog field mission in the Kess Kess formation near Erfoud, Morocco. During these tests, we followed tele-science work flows pertinent to Mars surface missions in a simulated spaceflight environment. We report on the L.I.F.E. instrument setup, data processing, and performance during field trials. A pilot postmission laboratory analysis determined that rock samples acquired during the field mission exhibited a fluorescence signal from the Sun-exposed side characteristic of chlorophyll a following excitation at 405 nm. A weak fluorescence response to excitation at 532 nm may have originated from another microbial photosynthetic pigment, phycoerythrin, but final assignment awaits development of a comprehensive database of mineral and organic fluorescence spectra. No chlorophyll fluorescence signal was detected from the shaded underside of the samples.

Between 15 and 25 April 2011 in the framework of the PolAres programme of the Austrian Space Forum, a five-day field test of the Aouda.X spacesuit simulator was conducted at the Rio Tinto Mars-analogue site in southern Spain. The field crew was supported by a full-scale Mission Control Center (MCC) in Innsbruck, Austria. The field telemetry data were relayed to the MCC, enabling a Remote Science Support (RSS) team to study field data in near-real-time and adjust the flight planning in a flexible manner. We report on the experiences in the field of robotics, geophysics (Ground Penetrating Radar) and geology as well as life sciences in a simulated spaceflight operational environment. Extravehicular Activity (EVA) maps had been prepared using Google Earth and aerial images. The Rio Tinto mining area offers an excellent location for Mars analogue simulations. It is recognised as a terrestrial Mars analogue site because of the presence of jarosite and related sulphates, which have been identified by the NASA Mars Exploration Rover “Opportunity” in the El Capitan region of Meridiani Planum on Mars. The acidic, high ferric-sulphate content water of Rio Tinto is also considered as a possible analogue in astrobiology regarding the analysis of ferric sulphate related biochemical pathways and produced biomarkers. During our Mars simulation, 18 different types of soil and rock samples were collected by the spacesuit tester. The Raman results confirm the presence of minerals expected, such as jarosite, different Fe oxides and oxi-hydroxides, pyrite and complex Mg and Ca sulphates. Eight science experiments were conducted in the field. In this contribution first we list the important findings during the management and realisation of tests, and also a first summary of the scientific results. Based on these experiences suggestions for future analogue work are also summarised. We finish with recommendations for future field missions, including the preparation of the experiments, communication and data transfer – as an aid to the planning of future simulations.

MARS2013 was an integrated Mars analog field simulation in eastern Morocco performed by the Austrian Space Forum between February 1 and 28, 2013. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the system of data processing and utilization adopted by the Remote Science Support (RSS) team during this mission. The RSS team procedures were designed to optimize operational efficiency of the Flightplan, field crew, and RSS teams during a long-term analog mission with an introduced 10 min time delay in communication between "Mars" and Earth. The RSS workflow was centered on a single-file, easy-to-use, spatially referenced database that included all the basic information about the conditions at the site of study, as well as all previous and planned activities. This database was prepared in Google Earth software. The lessons learned from MARS2013 RSS team operations are as follows: (1) using a spatially referenced database is an efficient way of data processing and data utilization in a long-term analog mission with a large amount of data to be handled, (2) mission planning based on iterations can be efficiently supported by preparing suitability maps, (3) the process of designing cartographical products should start early in the planning stages of a mission and involve representatives of all teams, (4) all team members should be trained in usage of cartographical products, (5) technical problems (e.g., usage of a geological map while wearing a space suit) should be taken into account when planning a work flow for geological exploration, (6) a system that helps the astronauts to efficiently orient themselves in the field should be designed as part of future analog studies.

We present the summary of results of the 2013 EuroMoonMars-B analogue operations mission conducted at the Mars Desert esearch Station (MDRS). The two-week campaign involved a series of operations, human factors, and scientific exploration research towards goals of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG). The primary research objectives revolved around the operations to conduct field geology to identify targets of astrobiological interest, and to provide recommendations for future crewed expeditions for increasing the science return based on improved resource allocation. These activities include assessment of robotic and automation tools for assisting geologists to increase the efficiency of time spent on extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); crowd-sources mapping to identify potential target regions; and habitat-based human factors to reduce stress levels during operations. Secondary objectives towards those goals included a low-bandwidthEarth-Moon time-delayed communications experiment.