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Against the view that antecedents to modern racism can be found in medieval Europe's depictions of Moors, Saracens and the prophet Muhammad, this article demonstrates that representations of Muslims from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries were both respectful and resentful, lacking the kind of coherence necessary to show a pattern of racialisation. Rather than reflecting a structural continuity with the Orientalism that emerged in the nineteenth century, the representations that prevailed were the product of the power interests at play in specific historical and geographical contexts. Certainly, there was prejudice, xenophobia and ethnocentrism, sometimes taking forms that superficially resemble modern racisms. But only with the rise of various European powers as empires in the modern era did it become possible to ideologically and structurally racialise Muslims. Thus, 'race' should be seen as a modern development that accompanied the rise of capitalism and European colonialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recalling the Crusades emerges as a very signficant aspect of the image of the West in the Arab thought of the second half of the twentieth and the first decades of the twenty-first centuries. This article explores the roots of the this modern anti-Crusader rhetoric in the period between the world wars, both of which drastically altered the imaginary and self-perception of the populations of the Middle East and North Africa. It traces the main patterns of using the Crusades in Arab social thought and politics in this period, analyses why such references were used in various contexts and demonstrates their connections with the heritage of the major intellectuals, littérateurs, and public figures of the Arab cultural revival (al-nahḍa). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the political-military decisions related to some important moments in human history, namely: the European crusades in the East, World War I, World War II, the Cuban missile crisis, the agreements between Reagan and Gorbachev. Western and Central Europe carried out crusades in the Near East between 1096 and 1270 with the aim of freeing the tomb of Christ in Jerusalem from Muslim occupation. Although it started from religious purposes, the crusades were based on political-military decisions at a strategic level. The First World War was a military conflict of global proportions. It was a global war started in Europe, which took place between July 28, 1914 and November 11, 1918, and in which more than 70 million soldiers participated, including 60 million mobilized Europeans. World War II was also a global conflict that took place from 1939 to 1945, although some conflicts associated with it began even earlier. The war involved the vast majority of the world's countries, including all the great powers, who formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Last but not least in importance are decisions regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis and the end of the Cold War.

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In 1106, Constance, the daughter of King Philip I of France, married Bohemond of Antioch, a hero of the First Crusade. After their wedding, the couple returned to Bohemond’s territories in Apulia. However, their marriage proved short-lived. Bohemond’s untimely death in 1111 left Constance with the task of securing the inheritance of their only surviving son, Bohemond II, still a minor at the time. Throughout the course of the next fifteen years, Constance was relentless in her determination to preserve Bohemond II’s patrimony, enduring repeated captivities and working tirelessly to secure the military and diplomatic support necessary to establish permanent control of his inheritance. This article argues that these actions on behalf of her son and the experiences that informed them reflect her expectations about motherhood and her understanding of her role in that capacity. It integrates a range of sources, most notable among them her unique seal, to demonstrate how her conception of motherhood was informed by her own experiences as a child and her observations of other powerful women acting on behalf of their own sons. Her tenacity was a direct reflection of her emotional investment in and maternal commitment to Bohemond II, providing insight into the medieval mother-son bond. Her determination to physically protect her son in the present as well as ensure his future safety by establishing control of the lands he inherited from his father were impulses she would have shared with noble mothers across medieval Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Crusades, which continued in Egypt and Syria between 1095-1291, brought Egyptian alum against them, and they were interested in its trade and started to carry raw materials for dyeing European wool. Even in the years when Saladin's struggles with the Crusaders continued, Genoese merchants achieved great income by transporting Egyptian alum from Alexandria to Europe. With the discovery of Anatolian alum mines towards the middle of the thirteenth century, Italian Merchants turned their attention to mines such as Focha, Gediz and Shebinkarahisar. This process has drawn them into a series of events, from power struggles to internal turmoil. In this process, the Italians, who tried to be close to the ruling powers in Anatolia from the Byzantines to the Ottomans, also entered into rivalries among themselves over alum. In this process, they increased their income by helping the Ottomans in the Byzantine and dynastic struggles, and even managed to get their debts erased. With the discovery of European alum in the middle of the fifteenth century, new fractures were experienced. With the revenues of this precious metal, the popes tried to start a new Crusade against the Ottomans, and they used the alum revenues as a weapon. Italian and Neapolitan people, to whom the Popes transferred their rights to these mining enterprises, continued the interests and interests of the Crusades. This new processal so opened the door for the Ottomans to not benefit from an important source of income properly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "Zionist-Crusader analogy" is a recurring trope in Israeli politics and society. The present article focuses on an overlooked aspect of this analogy, the visual and artistic expression of supposed similarity and distinction between the medieval Latin kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1291) and the State of Israel. We examine the visual and literary output of renowned Israeli artist Igael Tumarkin (1933–2021) whose crusades-related art embodies the tensions between past and present, east and west, and personal and collective memory. An in-depth study of a few of Tumarkin's artworks and writings reveals the artist's unique viewpoint on the "Zionist-Crusader" historiographical framework. These works, it is argued, inhabit two main interpretive frames, which are intricately connected. The first reflects, though not always consistently, the extent to which contemporary Israel "belongs" within the greater Levantine context; the second is the artist's reflection on his own identity as a Jew born in Germany and an Israeli citizen, who often perceives himself as an outsider navigating between different cultural iconographies and identities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on the perceptual changes in the Western world during the Crusades regarding the position of Jesus Christ in the campaigns. The process of Jesus involvement in the crusades to mobilise the Crusaders is a factuality that should be evaluated in the axis of the history of the prophets as the calling of a prophet to history. The anachronistic situation of Jesus did not cause any negativity in the functioning of the expeditions, and this conception developed through Jesus also has a nature that reveals the Christian ummah's view of its prophet. One of the most complex processes of medieval history is the Crusades and their importance on the East-West axis. The unifying aspect of Christianity, which served as a glue to unite continental Europe, laid the intellectual foundations of the Crusades. The Crusades, which took place intermittently between 1096 and 1291, took their basic dynamic from religious motivation, but also included an idea that desired worldly benefits and the riches of the East. The transformation of Western Europe after the fall of Rome and the destruction left by feudalism initiated a process of increasing the power of the church. In this process, Western Christianity's conception of history moved towards a certain end and concentrated on the idea that the power of God would be established on earth. This idea made the church the historical motor force and positioned Western Christians in a position of service to the state of God. Behind this idea, the desire to reach the riches of the East and the instinct to create material resources that continental Europe lacked prepared the ground for the realisation of the Crusades. The aim of the crusades launched by the papacy with the general Crusader sermon given at the Clermont council in 1095 was to take back Jerusalem from the Muslims, who were considered heathen, and to follow the way of Jesus Christ. The fact that Jerusalem was very important for Jesus Christ and the identification of Christian holy places with Jerusalem occupied a very important place in the liberation of Jerusalem. In particular, the emphasis on Jesus during the expeditions appointed a prophet to guide the Christian ummah during the expeditions. In this respect, Jesus Christ was called back into history to meet the needs of Western Christians. In the Crusader imagination, Jesus Christ's guiding, encouraging and, when necessary, rebuking aspect from the beginning of the campaigns turned into a positive contribution to the course of the campaigns. Here, the aspect of Jesus Christ that dynamised the expeditions is the fact that he guided the Crusaders on their way to the East. Jesus Christ, who held a very important place in the success of the Crusades and in the centring of religious motivation, claimed in the Crusades the ideas that he did not claim in his own age. This article analyses the place of Jesus in the Crusader imagination and the changes and transformations it underwent during the campaigns. The fact that Jesus, who was summoned in response to the needs of Western Europe, was able to dynamise the crusades and declare that the crusades were based on God, was also a source of legitimacy for the Crusaders. In the article, the source analysis and comparison method were used in coordination. In this way, the comparison of Crusader sources was made in a more reliable way. As a result, it was concluded that according to the Crusader imagination, Jesus Christ (the called Jesus) mobilised the Crusaders to save Christianity and its holy ones from the Muslim domination and attack in the East. Here, the fact that Jesus Christ was the guiding centre of power makes it obvious that the Crusaders indexed their legitimacy to God through Jesus and to Jerusalem as a settlement. From this point of view, it may be said that the Crusaders achieved a significant success in the Crusades with the fiction they developed through Jesus Christ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study aims to highlight the impact of the first crusade(488-492A.H/1095-1099A.D) expedition on shaping the image of Islam and Muslims in Western Europe during the Middle Ages . Through what the Western European Crusaders' early contemporary historians have written and accompanying its events during that period of time Those who created a comprehensive and wide image of Islam and Muslims, whose writings on the events and of the First Crusade expedion came as eyewitnesses, provided accurate details that contributed to the image of Islam and Muslims during that period And this damaged image made was spread widely in Europe during that time to embed in their heads for coming decades. Thus, this conducted study thrives to notice the difference if found, of how western Europe saw Islam Muslims before and after this first crusade took place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There should be two concerns implied when a symmetrical history of the Crusades is put forward. First is to expressively study the Muslim document set and secondly the relationship of the historical agents with the environment is to be considered. In this paper we discuss the iqtā’ system and its simultaneous role in maintaining power balance and in ensuring effective exploitation of natural resources within the Mamluk Sultanate. We have selected the narratives of two Mamluk chroniclers to support our discussion. These narratives are about sultan Qalāwūn undertaking efforts, in 682/1283, to open an irrigation canal in al-Buhayra in the Nile River Delta. This discussion aims to criticize the mistake of considering the Sultanate incapable of dealing with problems such as droughts and famines. In addition, it examines how the sultans coped with their internal political problems, like the nomadic opposition and other dissidence. These challenges coexisted at the same time that confronting the last enclaves Crusaders in Syria and responding the Mongol growing threat was needed.

Objectives: The research aims to understand the events in order to reach more scientific and accurate facts about the Kurds in Mosul and their role in the Islamic response to the Crusader challenge in the Middle Ages.Method: This study did not establish the Crusades as a historical military event, but rather examined the extent to which the Iraqi and military topographical factor influenced the making of that event, and the extent to which this factor influenced the demographic distribution in the Iraqi military region, as it did so on historical and historical events.Results: The Kurds in Iraq - without combat, Yazid was an important force in Nur al-Din’s army, and they waged wars loyally. We consider that evidence of this is that Najm al-Din Ayyub and his brother Shirkuh were among his greatest commanders, and Najm al-Din Nur al-Din Mahmoud helped him in the conquest of Damascus. In addition to that, he was To respond to Shahd's role in defending the areas of the Caliphate in the Abbasid era, they remained loyal to the symbol of Islam (the Abbasid Caliphate), and did not attempt to carry out movements of rebellion and secession or occupy Baghdad, and they could have done so if they wanted to, but in sincerity of loyalty to Islam and the Abbasid Caliphate nothing else. Likewise, Salah al-Din was a symbol of Arab-Kurdish brotherhood in word and deed, and he changed the face of history as the will of the Muslims wanted. Under the purity of the true Islamic religion, Jerusalem - the site of Muhammad (may God bless him and grant him peace) and the birthplace of Christ (peace be upon him) - and the pure land of Palestine were protected from the control of the Crusaders. And he spent. Throughout his life under tents or in the expanses of war to expel the angry, he stood as an impenetrable barrier against European colonialism for thirty-five years. Yes, this is the shining role of the Kurds in defending the Islamic holy place, such as the first qibla for Muslims (Bayt al-Maqdis).Conclusion: The study recommends the need to conduct more of these studies, because their importance has become urgent in this era for political and civilizational reasons, given that European colonialism is working hard to separate this region culturally and historically from its connection with the Arabs and Islam.

Beginning with Innocent III's pontificate, participation in the crusades became increasingly interpreted as imitatio Christi patientis. Innocent III's crusade theology was revived by later pontiffs and became ingrained in the collective imagination through preaching. This article shows how Dante draws on thirteenth-century crusade theology in his depiction of the cross of Mars, with special attention paid to imitatio Christi. Dante's rendering of his inner sacrifice (Par. xiv, 88–93) foreshadows the apparition of the cross and appears to have been influenced by the imagery of the crusader's vow as found in contemporary ecclesiastical documents. In these texts, crusaders are frequently depicted as participating in an inner sacrifice prompted by the fire of caritas that recalls Christ's own sacrifice. Reading Paradisoxiv-xv in light of this context – and with an awareness of the significance of Cacciaguida's placement in the same heaven – allows us to explore Dante's self-representation as a miles Christi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the contemporary world, Christians and Muslims make up the world’s two largest religious communities, together comprising somewhere between a third and half of the world’s population. The relationship between them is, therefore, important. This article outlines Christian thinking about Islam as it has developed over the centuries, in different contexts and in different regions of the world, focusing initially on the four main interpretations which emerged in the early medieval period: Islam as fulfilment of God’s promise to Abraham; Islam as God’s judgment on an erring Christian church; Islam as a Christian heresy; and Islam as ‘the Antichrist’. The article then outlines the further elaboration of these views in the later medieval era, in both the East (debate and exchange), and the West (crusade, study, and mission). In the modern era, Christian thinking about Islam is outlined through a survey of opinion in the Reformation and the Enlightenment, followed by an overview of missionary thinking in the age of empire. Finally, in outlining Christian thinking about Islam since the Second World War, use is made of the typology – widely used in the theology of religions – of ‘exclusivism’, ‘inclusivism’, and ‘pluralism’.

This paper proposes an exploration of the connection between the recessive trend of the financial economy in the mid-14th century and the simultaneous organisation of the expeditions to the Levant. Specifically, it will measure the impact of the crisis of the Florentine merchant companies, on which the papal treasuries also depended, on the setting up of the Smyrna crusade, which had begun before their collapse and was forced to downsize in the making. Then, the diplomatic contacts between the forces involved will be examined and the relationship between Clement VI (1342-1352), promoter of the expedition, and the Venetian Senate: if the former can be seen as a strenuous attempt to react to the economic constraints, the council seems to be oriented towards limiting contributions, having perhaps lost faith in the success of the enterprise.

This paper aims at analyzing episodes of cannibalism which are featured in medieval chronicles of military encounters between Christians and Muslims from the eleventh to the early thirteenth century. My intention is to show that cannibalism had a twofold connotation which transcended the mere notion of taboo. On the one hand, anthropophagy represented an emergency solution to which crusaders resorted for the mere sake of survival. Rather than emphasizing the breaking of the taboo, however, European chronicles employed reports of cannibalism to dehumanize their Muslim enemies. On the other hand, anthropophagy was also associated with magical and medical practice. Primary sources suggest that both Christian and Muslims hoarded dead soldiers’ organs and body parts in order to obtain either moral (e.g., bravery) or physical (e.g., health, strength) benefits. Such practices are compared with remedies which are found in the Latin grimoire known as Picatrix, translated from the Arabic at the court of Alfonso X the Wise. By contextualizing historical sources within the anthropological debate on cannibalism, this contribution is meant to suggest that anthropophagic practices were considerably nuanced in the High and Late Middle Ages, well beyond the traditional Eurocentric binary interpretation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of Jerusalem and the Holy Land to Western medieval Christians, the cradle and homeland of their religion, being well known, this work proposes to examine sources from the time of the Crusades (papal documents, sermons and preaching, chronicles and histories), searching them for the idea of Christian reconquest of the Holy Land and, if possible, use of the word "reconquest" as a literal reflection of a desire to reconquer the Christian territories of the East from the Muslims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The substantial two-volume work Terrae Sanctae Elucidatio (1639) by the Franciscan friar Francesco Quaresmio (b. Lodi, Italy, 1583–1656) is known as a veritable encyclopaedia on the Holy Land. It is also an itinerary of pilgrimage through the sacred sites, taking their monumentality and graphic landscape into account. Quaresmio was especially attentive to the Latin inscriptions made by the Crusaders, here copied by him as autoptic testimonies. This is part of a more general phenomenon. From the fifteenth century through to the seventeenth, in Europe this period is sometimes called the "Age of Inscriptions", during which epigraphy was recognized as a source of ancient history on a par with philology and archaeology. The overall aim of the present article is to show how Quaresmio, while continuing a medieval tradition of Franciscan scholarship, improved upon epigraphical study by deploying a specific technology, namely the visual rendering of uncial inscriptions in printed form. His rigorous observations, however, would have come to naught without the technical mastery of the Flemish printer-typographer Balthasar Moretus (1574–1641). Following previous developments in pilgrimage literature, where inscriptions – especially the Crusader epitaphs at the foot of Calvary – were commonplace, Quaresmio studied inscriptions not only as texts, but also considered their formal and material aspects. Ultimately, the present study argues that these Latin epigraphic texts played a role in the man's theological argumentation and in the defence of the loca sancta as Latin possession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article offers a new edition and translation, with accompanying commentary, of an anonymous text entitled by Charles Kohler in the nineteenth century as Historia regum Hierusalem Latinorum ad deplorationem perditionis Terrae Sanctae accommodata. Incorporating evidence drawn from the discovery of three new manuscript witnesses, it is argued that this text, which presents a history the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem from its foundation during the First Crusade through to Saladin's capture of the Holy City in October 1187, was likely produced in the Latin East at the turn of the 1190s, contemporaneously with the events of the Third Crusade. Indeed, the Anonymous Historia is viewed here not only in the context of contemporary laments on Jerusalem's loss, but as a possible exhortatio that sought to use the history of the Latin East as a vehicle to promote further crusading. Analysis of the text's potential literary influences and early dissemination demonstrates its relationship to William of Tyre's Chronicon, and brings forward the date of our earliest written witness to that famous narrative, as well as the Historia's likely independence from the text known as Ernoul. The fact that we can find echoes of this text not only in the Holy Land, but in Angevin and German lands as well, adds another piece to the puzzle of exploring textual responses to the Latin East at the end of the twelfth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the role of Louis IX's defeat and captivity during the Seventh Crusade in the transition from Ayyubid to Mamluk sultanate. It focuses on the attempt of amir Fakhr al-Dīn ibn al-Shaykh (d. 647/1250), al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb's (r. in Egypt 637/1240–647/1249) vizier and commander of his army during the crusade, to seize power and argues that following the death of the sultan, Louis IX's campaign tilted the balance among the various contenders for the Egyptian throne and decisively contributed to the assumption of power by the Mamluks. The article offers a new framework to explain this major political transition by comparing the failure of the Ayyubid traditional and hereditary military elites to repel Louis IX's invasion with the astounding successes of the Mamluks, all within the context of the structural and administrative changes instituted by al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb and his prevalent patterns of interaction with the Franks. It shows that Fakhr al-Dīn's endeavour to capture the Egyptian throne and to recreate the diplomatic conditions and political consequences of the Fifth and Sixth Crusades failed in the case of the Seventh since Louis IX did not intend to conclude any peace agreement with the Muslims. The article highlights how Louis IX's military and diplomatic defeats allowed the Mamluk regime to quickly consolidate its power and how the Mamluks succeeded where Fakhr al-Dīn failed: they ended the Ayyubid line, defeated Louis IX, forced the latter to surrender Damietta on their own terms, and garnered the necessary legitimacy and popular support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ancestors Legacy is a 2018 real-time strategy video game set in the Middle Ages. The game was developed by the controversial Polish studio Destructive Creations, whose members have been accused of sympathizing and supporting far-right movements online. This ideological support can be seen in their video games, some of which have included the use of crusading medievalisms in line with the civilizational-conflict narrative often espoused by far-right movements: i.e. the idea that Christianity is embarked in a never-ending battle with Islam and other cultures, of which the crusades are just an episode. Nevertheless, Ancestors Legacy categorically condemns the crusades as unfair and hypocritical, a statement backed by a reasonably accurate recounting of the events. Upon closer inspection, however, this accuracy is superficial and molded by a larger ideological framework about the Middle Ages and the crusades. This article argues that the game occupies the dissonant space of condemning crusading but adopting it as an unavoidable part of the clash of civilizations that lasts until this day, hence justifying the player exercising the very violence it condemns. This is an example of what Adrienne Shaw has called the tyranny of realism: an obsession with accuracy in video games, based on hegemonic and audience-driven perceptions of the past that do not allow for a critical and emancipatory approximation to history.Banner image taken from the press kit for Ancestors Legacy (2018, Destructive Creations).

Tarihî İpek Yolu ile desteklenen Doğu’nun eşsiz dokumaları, Bağdat’tan Kahire’ye varıncaya kadar Tırâz denilen dokuma evlerinde imal edilmiştir. Özellikle Mısır’da dokunan zarif kumaşlar, Firavunlardan Helen kraliçelerine, Vatikan’daki Papa’dan tarihte iz bırakmış büyük hükümdarlara kadar pek çok önemli kişiyi giydirmiş, dönemlerinin güç ve zarafetini yansıtmıştır. Bu durum, Haçlıların bölgeye gelmesi ile zaman zaman kesintiye uğradığı gibi hânedan değişiklikleri ile de sarsılmıştır. Mısır, Firavunlardan Roma hâkimiyeti hükümdarlarına varıncaya kadar renkli ve gizemli tarihi ile bu konuda ayrı bir yer edinmiştir. Kadîm Mısır, ilk İslâm fatihlerinden Emevîlere, Abbâsîlerden Fâtımîlere uzanan canlı tarihi ile yeni bir çehreye bürünmüştür. X. yüzyıldan itibaren ticaretin Bağdat’tan Kahire’ye kayması Mısır dokuma evlerinin önemini artırmıştır. Kızıldeniz kanalıyla Hindistan ve Çin’in değerli ipeklerini ve eşi bulunmaz kadifelerini Kahire’ye ve diğer merkezlere akıtmaya başlamıştır. Bundan sonra da Tûne, Şetâ, Dimyat, İskenderiye, Debîk, Behnesâ, el-Feremâ ve Fâtımîlerin yeni idare merkezi Kahire gibi şehirlerde tırâzlı kumaş dokunmaya devam edilmiştir. 1099’dan itibaren de Fâtımîler ve ardılları, Haçlılarla birlikte yaşamak zorunda kalarak yeni bir sayfa açmışlardır. Haçlı seferleri esna-sında beşinci ve yedinci Haçlı seferlerinin dokuma merkezlerinin kalbinde yer alan Dimyat’a yapılması, bu sürecin en hareketli dönemini içermiştir. Yaşanan olumsuzluktan kurtulmak için Mısır Eyyûbî hükümdarı el-Melikü’l-Kâmil’in (1218-1238), 1219’da Haçlılara dokuma evleri ile de tanınan Dimyat karşılığında Lazkiye ve onun güneydoğusunda yer alan Cebele liman şehirlerini önermesini, ancak Haçlıların bu parlak teklifi kabul etmemesini yine buradaki dokuma evlerinin zenginliği ile de ilişkilendirebiliriz. Mısır dokuma evleri Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî, Sultan Baybars gibi tarihe mal olmuş kimseleri de olayların içine çekmiş, onların dokuma evleri konu-sundaki dirayetli idareleri niçin bu büyük üne sahip olduklarını gözler önüne sermiştir. Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî’nin (1171-1193) Fâtımî iktidarını sonlandırarak 1171’de Mısır’a hâkim olmasından sonra dokuma evleri neredeyse aynı istikamette yoluna devam etmiştir. Selâhaddîn, Kahire’deki Dâru’t-Tırâz’a İbn Senâülmülk adlı bir görevliyi tayin ederek dokuma evlerine verdiği değeri ortaya koymuştur. Diğer yan-dan, Mısır dokuma evlerinin en önemli adresleri olan Dimyat ve İskenderiye ise Mısır üzerine yapılan seferlerin kısa bir özeti gibi olmuş, buraların zenginliklerini yağmalamak isteyen Haçlıların gerçek amaçlarının kutsal değil para ve güç olduğunu bir kez daha ortaya koymuştur. Dimyat ve İskenderiye gibi önemli yerler, stratejik konumları yanı sıra iktisadî kimlikleri ile de boy göstermiş, buradaki avantajla-rını yitirmek istemeyen idareciler ise adı geçen şehirlerde yer alan dokuma evlerini başıboş bırakmayarak zaman zaman teftiş etmişlerdir. Ele almaya çalıştığımız süreç de Haçlı seferlerinin daha iyi anlaşılmasına ve daha net değerlendirilmesine vesile olmuştur.

The outcome of the Nicopolis crusade (1396)—a crushing victory for the Ottoman Turks over a crusader army led by Franco-Burgundian knights—had particularly deep resonances in the Kingdom of France. This was reflected in several contemporary works that lamented and/or criticised the crusaders' defeat. Among these, Philippe de Mézières's Une Epistre lamentable (1397) and Honorat Bovet's L'Apparicion Maistre Jehan de Meun (1398) are of special note because they contain not only remarkable reflections on the campaign but also interesting observations on the successful Ottomans. Their praise of the Turks, especially regarding their military organisation and discipline, served both to criticise the crusaders' own lack of discipline but also to present an example for them to follow in order to avenge the defeat. As Nicopolis marked the beginning of a Burgundian claim to champion the crusading movement, these works were primarily addressed to the Duke of Burgundy, among other European princes and nobility. In the mid-fifteenth century, Duke Philip the Good would carry this claim to its zenith by several undertakings that included sending envoys to the East to gather information about the enemy. One of these envoys, Bertrandon de la Broquière, visited the Ottoman lands in 1432–1433 and some twenty years later wrote his Le Voyage d'Outremer to communicate the observations and intelligence gathered during his journey. The fact that this work, written almost six decades after Nicopolis, contains multiple allusions to the defeat, in addition to similar portrayals and comments on the Turks within the two earlier works, can be taken to suggest a continuity in Western military portrayals of the Turks from Nicopolis onwards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Holy Land was the destination for many Muslim pilgrims during the late medieval and early modern period. In addition to worshipping in Jerusalem's Haram al-Sharif, Muslim pilgrims in the Holy Land also visited important Christian holy sites, such as the Mount of Olives, the Tomb of the Virgin Mary, the Church of the Ascension, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. With a genre of medieval Islamic pilgrimage texts known as Fada'il al-Quds (Merits of Jerusalem) serving as their guide, Muslims visited these places and joined Christian worshippers in contemplating the sacred. Fada'il al-Quds texts informed Muslim pilgrims of the blessings (fada'il) of Christian holy sites by citing Islamic traditions, such as Qur'anic verses, hadith literature, and Companions' sayings (athar), to sanctify each Christian site and to command Muslims to perform certain Islamic prayers and rituals there. Despite the debate on the legality of Muslim pilgrimage to churches and protestations against the practice by some conservative 'ulama', the Fada'il al-Quds corpus, along with travelogue literature, reveals that Muslims increasingly visited churches, shared sacred spaces, and even participated in Christian ceremonies into the Ottoman period. Using Fada'il al-Quds and travelogue literature from the medieval and early modern period, this study1 demonstrates that Muslims in the Holy Land shared sacred spaces with Christians in Jerusalem for centuries before the onset of the modern era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]