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Nanoparticle systems are being explored for the display of carbohydrate antigens, characterized by multimeric presentation of glycan epitopes and special chemico-physical properties of nano-sized particles. Among them, outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are receiving great attention, combining antigen presentation with the immunopotentiator effect of the Toll-like receptor agonists naturally present on these systems. In this context, we are testing Generalized Modules for Membrane Antigens (GMMA), OMVs naturally released from Gram-negative bacteria mutated to increase blebbing, as carrier for polysaccharides. Here, we investigated the impact of saccharide length, density, and attachment site on the immune response elicited by GMMA in animal models, using a variety of structurally diverse polysaccharides from different pathogens (i.e.,Neisseria meningitidisserogroup A and C,Haemophilus influenzaetype b, and streptococcus Group A Carbohydrate andSalmonellaTyphi Vi). Anti-polysaccharide immune response was not affected by the number of saccharides per GMMA particle. However, lower saccharide loading can better preserve the immunogenicity of GMMA as antigen. In contrast, saccharide length needs to be optimized for each specific antigen. Interestingly, GMMA conjugates induced strong functional immune response even when the polysaccharides were linked to sugars on GMMA. We also verified that GMMA conjugates elicit a T-dependent humoral immune response to polysaccharides that is strictly dependent on the nature of the polysaccharide. The results obtained are important to design novel glycoconjugate vaccines using GMMA as carrier and support the development of multicomponent glycoconjugate vaccines where GMMA can play the dual role of carrier and antigen. In addition, this work provides significant insights into the mechanism of action of glycoconjugates.

Correction to: Nature Communications https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18279-x, published online 7 September 2020.The original version of this Article contained errors in Fig. 1. The label ‘a’ was omitted for the left panel and the label ‘b’ was omitted for the right panel. In Fig. 1b, the right parenthesis was incorrectly positioned indicating a 4-carbon linker, rather than the correct 6-carbon linker. These errors have been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the Article.

Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A capsular polysaccharide (MenA CPS) consists of (1 → 6)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-α-D-mannopyranosyl phosphate repeating units, O-acetylated at position C3 or C4. Glycomimetics appear attractive to overcome the CPS intrinsic lability in physiological media, due to cleavage of the phosphodiester bridge, and to develop a stable vaccine with longer shelf life in liquid formulation. Here, we generate a series of non-acetylated carbaMenA oligomers which are proven more stable than the CPS. An octamer (DP8) inhibits the binding of a MenA specific bactericidal mAb and polyclonal serum to the CPS, and is selected for further in vivo testing. However, its CRM197 conjugate raises murine antibodies towards the non-acetylated CPS backbone, but not the natural acetylated form. Accordingly, random O-acetylation of the DP8 is performed, resulting in a structure (Ac-carbaMenA) showing improved inhibition of anti-MenA CPS antibody binding and, after conjugation to CRM197, eliciting anti-MenA protective murine antibodies, comparably to the vaccine benchmark., The Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A capsular polysaccharide (MenA CPS) is a component of commercial vaccines, but is unstable. Here, the authors generate glycomimetic oligomers that demonstrate higher stability than their natural counterparts and induce protective antibodies in mice.

Intradermal vaccine delivery is a promising alternative to the conventional intramuscular route. The skin layer is immunologically supported by a densely network of antigen presenting cells, while the skeletal muscle is loaded with a relatively sparse population of APCs. Nevertheless, the vaccine to be suitable for intradermal delivery needs a new formulation to facilitate either smaller injection volumes or the introduction into new delivery devises as micro-needles. This study presents a proof of concept for intradermal delivery of the MenC-CRM197 glycoconjugate vaccine using a mouse model. Tangential flow filtration allowed obtaining a 20-fold concentrated vaccine formulation suitable for intradermal injection. Importantly the intradermal delivery of non-adjuvanted MenC glycoconjugate vaccine showed a quicker on-set and superiority in terms of immunogenicity compared to intramuscular administration of the respective vaccine and comparable immunogenicity to the aluminum adjuvanted vaccine formulation given intramuscular. Subsequently, the use of adjuvants allowed to further increase the immunogenicity and to modulate the quality of the immune response towards a more beneficial Th1 response. As adjuvants two Toll like receptor agonists (TLR4a and TLR7a), a mutant of the heat-labile enterotoxin from Escherichia coli (LT), a α-GalactosylCeramide analogue and an oil in water emulsion were investigated in order to target skin-resident antigen-presenting cells. This approach has the potential to be extended to other meningococcal serogroups, representing a promising strategy for the development of dermally administered multivalent glycoconjugate vaccines.

Conjugation of a small molecule immunopotentiator to antigens has been proposed to deliver the ligand to the receptor, localize its action and minimize systemic inflammation. However, the effect of conjugation of Toll like receptor 7 agonists (TLR7a) on the immunogenicity of carbohydrate-based vaccines is unknown. In this study we synthesized an anti-Neisseria meningitidis serogroup C (MenC) glycoconjugate vaccine composed of MenC oligosaccharide antigens covalently linked to the carrier protein CRM197, to which a TLR7a was in turn conjugated. This vaccine was able to activate in vitro the TLR7 comparably to the unconjugated ligand. The magnitude and the quality of the immune response against MenC capsular polysaccharide were evaluated in mice, comparing the MenC-CRM-TLR7a construct to a MenC-CRM197 vaccine, prepared through the same conjugation chemistry and co-administered with the unconjugated TLR7a. A commercially licensed anti-MenC glycoconjugate was used as further control to determine the influence of the coupling approach and the level of carbohydrate incorporation on the anti-MenC immune response. The possible additive effect of co-administration with Alum hydroxide (AlumOH) was also examined. The bactericidal titers against N. meningitidis were in agreement with the elicited anti-carbohydrate IgGs, and unequivocally showed that TLR7a conjugation to CRM197 enhanced the anti-MenC immune response. TLR7a conjugation induced a shift to a Th1 type response, as assessed by the increased IgG2a subclass production, both in the absence and in the presence of AlumOH. The increased immune response was clearly present only in the absence of AlumOH and was less pronounced than the co-administration of a licensed glycoconjugate with a standard dose of TLR7a-phosphonate adsorbed on the inorganic salt. The amount of MenC saccharide that was covalently linked to CRM197 after previous CRM197-TLR7a conjugation resulted in lower responses than achieved with conventional MenC-CRM197 glycoconjugation in the absence of TLR7a. As result, the benefit of the adjuvant conjugation in terms of anti-MenC immune response was jeopardized by the lower saccharide/protein ratio obtained in the MenC-CRM-TLR7a conjugate. While adsorption on AlumOH offers more flexibility in the administered dose of TLR7a, conjugation of the small molecule immunopotentiator could be particularly suited for vaccination routes such as skin delivery, where insoluble aluminum salts cannot be used because of their reactogenicity in this site.

Glycoconjugate vaccines are made of carbohydrate antigens covalently bound to a carrier protein to enhance their immunogenicity. Among the different carrier proteins tested in preclinical and clinical studies, five have been used so far for licensed vaccines: Diphtheria and Tetanus toxoids, the non-toxic mutant of diphtheria toxin CRM197, the outer membrane protein complex of Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B and the Protein D derived from non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae. Availability of novel carriers might help to overcome immune interference in multi-valent vaccines containing several polysaccharide-conjugate antigens, and also to develop vaccines which target both protein as well saccharide epitopes of the same pathogen. Accordingly we have conducted a study to identify new potential carrier proteins. Twenty-eight proteins, derived from different bacteria, were conjugated to the model polysaccharide Laminarin and tested in mice for their ability in inducing antibodies against the carbohydrate antigen and eight of them were subsequently tested as carrier for serogroup meningococcal C oligosaccharides. Four out of these eight were able to elicit in mice satisfactory anti meningococcal serogroup C titers. Based on immunological evaluation, the Streptococcus pneumoniae protein spr96/2021 was successfully evaluated as carrier for serogroups A, C, W, Y and X meningococcal capsular saccharides.

Diphtheria toxin mutant CRM197 is a common carrier protein for glycoconjugate vaccines, which has been proven an effective protein vector for, among others, meningococcal carbohydrates. The wide-range use of this protein in massive vaccine production requires constant increase of production yields and adaptability to an ever-growing market. Here we compare CRM197 with the alternative diphtheria non-toxic variant DT-K51E/E148K, an inactive mutant that can be produced in the periplasm of Escherichia coli. Biophysical characterization of DT-K51E/E148K suggested high similarity with CRM197, with main differences in their alpha-helical content, and a suitable purity for conjugation and vaccine preparation. Meningococcal serogroup A (MenA) glycoconjugates were synthesized using CRM197 and DT-K51E/E148K as carrier proteins, obtaining the same conjugation yields and comparable biophysical profiles. Mice were then immunized with these CRM197 and DT-K51E/E148K conjugates, and essentially identical immunogenic and protective effects were observed. Overall, our data indicate that DT-K51E/E148K is a readily produced protein that now allows the added flexibility of E. coli production in vaccine development and that can be effectively used as protein carrier for a meningococcal conjugate vaccine.

Neisseria meningitidis is a major cause of bacterial meningitis worldwide, especially in the African meningitis belt, and has a high associated mortality. The meningococcal serogroups A, W, and X have been responsible for epidemics and almost all cases of meningococcal meningitis in the meningitis belt over the past 12 y. Currently no vaccine is available against meningococcal X (MenX). Because the development of a new vaccine through to licensure takes many years, this leaves Africa vulnerable to new epidemics of MenX meningitis at a time when the epidemiology of meningococcal meningitis on the continent is changing rapidly, following the recent introduction of a glycoconjugate vaccine against serogroup A. Here, we report the development of candidate glycoconjugate vaccines against MenX and preclinical data from their use in animal studies. Following optimization of growth conditions of our seed MenX strain for polysaccharide (PS) production, a scalable purification process was developed yielding high amounts of pure MenX PS. Different glycoconjugates were synthesized by coupling MenX oligosaccharides of varying chain length to CRM197 as carrier protein. Analytical methods were developed for in-process control and determination of purity and consistency of the vaccines. All conjugates induced high anti-MenX PS IgG titers in mice. Antibodies were strongly bactericidal against African MenX isolates. These findings support the further development of glycoconjugate vaccines against MenX and their assessment in clinical trials to produce a vaccine against the one cause of epidemic meningococcal meningitis that currently cannot be prevented by available vaccines.

Although glycoconjugate vaccines are generally very efficacious, there is still a need to improve their efficacy, especially in eliciting a strong primary antibody response. We have recently described a new type of vaccine adjuvant based on a TLR7 agonist adsorbed to alum (Alum-TLR7), which is highly efficacious at enhancing immunogenicity of protein based vaccines. Since no adjuvant has been shown to potentiate the immune response to glycoconjugate vaccines in humans, we investigated if Alum-TLR7 is able to improve immunogenicity of this class of vaccines. We found that in a mouse model Alum-TLR7 greatly improved potency of a CRM197-MenC vaccine increasing anti-MenC antibody titers and serum bactericidal activity (SBA) against MenC compared to alum adjuvanted vaccine, especially with a low dose of antigen and already after a single immunization. Alum-TLR7 also drives antibody response towards Th1 isotypes. This adjuvant was also able to increase immunogenicity of all polysaccharides of a multicomponent glycoconjugate vaccine CRM197-MenACWY. Furthermore, we found that Alum-TLR7 increases anti-polysaccharide immune response even in the presence of a prior immune response against the carrier protein. Finally, we demonstrate that Alum-TLR7 adjuvant effect requires a functional TLR7. Taken together, our data support the use of Alum-TLR7 as adjuvant for glycoconjugate vaccines.

Samples of Mytilus galloprovincialis and Mullus barbatus were collected in eight coastal sites along the South Adriatic and Ionic coasts of Italy in spring 2000 for a survey of coastal pollution in the Mediterranean basin. Specimens were analysed using an integrated approach based on residue analysis of common aquatic pollutants like organochlorines such as hexachlorobenzene (HCB), DDTs and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals and nonylphenols (NPnE) and biomarker responses such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and the two specific P450 activities benzo(a)pyrene monooxygenase (BPMO) and 7-ethoxyre-sorufin-(9-deethylase (EROD). Biological and morphological parameters like somatic liver index (SLI), gonadosomatic index (GSI) and gonadal and gamete histology (eggs and sperms) were also evaluated in red mullet samples. A contamination gradient in which several hot spots occur were revealed in this study. The hot spots account for high levels of organochlorines in both species near incinerators and of PAHs in harbour areas. Levels of both NPnE and AChE activity were highest in two protected marine areas and were within detectable limits in others. This finding was confirmed by P450 activities, in which maximum levels were detected in harbours and protected marine areas. No morphological alterations of male and female gonads were observed on the histological level.

Glycoconjugate vaccines are among the most effective and safest vaccines ever developed. Diphtheria toxoid (DT), tetanus toxoid (TT) and CRM197 have been mostly used as protein carriers in licensed vaccines. We evaluated the immunogenicity of serogroup A, C, W-135 and Y meningococcal oligosaccharides conjugated to CRM197, DT and TT in naive mice. The three carriers were equally efficient in inducing an immune response against the carbohydrate moiety in immunologically naive mice. The effect of previous exposure to different dosages of the carrier protein on the anti-carbohydrate response was studied using serogroup A meningococcal (MenA) saccharide conjugates as a model. CRM197 showed a strong propensity to positively prime the anti-carbohydrate response elicited by its conjugates or those with the antigenically related carrier DT. Conversely in any of the tested conditions TT priming did not result in enhancement of the anti-carbohydrate response elicited by the corresponding conjugates. Repeated exposure of mice to TT or to CRM197 before immunization with the respective MenA conjugates resulted in a drastic suppression of the anti-carbohydrate response in the case of TT conjugate and only in a slight reduction in the case of CRM197. The effect of carrier priming on the anti-MenA response of DT-based conjugates varied depending on their carbohydrate to protein ratio. These data may have implications for human vaccination since conjugate vaccines are widely used in individuals previously immunized with DT and TT carrier proteins.