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In March of 2021, the Berlin-based company cmp continued geophysical prospection works at the ancient city of Artashat-Artaxata (Ararat Province, Armenia). The city was founded by Artashes-Artaxias I in the early 2nd century BC and served as his capital. First magnetic measurements were conducted by the Eastern Atlas company in September 2018. In 2021, during the 5-day survey a total surface of approximately 19.5 ha was investigated by use of the LEA MAX magnetic gradiometer array. This system was configured with seven fluxgate gradiometer probes, similar to the system used in the first survey of 2018. The investigated areas of the Eastern Lower City of Artaxata, located to the south of the investigated field of 2018, had good surface conditions with a moderate amount of sources causing disturbance. However, the general level of the magnetic gradient values measured was significantly lower compared to the 2018 data. Despite the lower magnetic field intensity, a continuation of linear structures towards the south was observed. These lines, most likely reflecting streets and pathways, criss-cross the central part of the Eastern Lower City in a NW–SE and NE–SW direction and exhibit partly positive, partly negative magnetic anomalies. Attached to them, some isolated spots with building remains were identified. The negative linear anomalies point to remains of limestone foundations, as detected in the northern part of the Lower City. The low magnetic intensity and fragmentation of the observed structures are most likely due to severe destruction of the ancient layers by 20th-century earthworks for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the southern part of the surveyed area was affected by major changes caused by modern quarries at Hills XI and XII. In general, the results of the two magnetic prospection campaigns greatly aid our understanding of the archaeological situation in the area of the Eastern Lower City of Artaxata, justifying further investigations that will surely contribute to greater contextualization of the identified archaeological structures. The full data sets are also published in open access on Zenodo.

Abstract Background CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 represent histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and transcriptional coactivators that play essential roles in tumour initiation and progression. Both proteins are generally thought to function as tumour suppressors, although their distinct roles in colorectal cancer (CRC) remain inconsistent and ambiguous. Thus, we analysed the expression of these two HATs in human tissue samples from patients with locally advanced rectal cancer via immunohistochemistry and evaluated their potential impacts on future CRC diagnosis and treatment. Methods In our analysis, we included ninety-three (n = 93) patients diagnosed with adenocarcinoma in the upper third of the rectum. None of the patients received preoperative chemoradiotherapy, but the patients did undergo primary resection of the tumour within the phase II GAST-05 trial. By using H-scores, the expression of both proteins was visualised via immunohistochemistry in resected specimens from the patients. CBP and p300 expression were correlated with clinical and follow-up data. Results Our analysis showed that high expression of CBP was significantly associated with prolonged cancer-specific survival (CSS; p = 0.002). In univariate analysis, CBP was an independent prognostic parameter for CSS (p = 0.042). High nuclear CBP expression was observed in two-thirds of patients. In contrast, we could not find any significant correlation between the expression of p300 and cancer-specific survival in this cohort of patients (p = 0.09). We did not observe any cooperation between CBP and p300 in our analysis. Conclusions High expression of CBP was significantly associated with improved oncological outcomes. This finding could help to stratify patients in the future for CRC treatment. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are increasingly playing a role in oncological treatment and could additionally become therapeutic options in CRC. Our findings need to be further evaluated and verified in future clinical analyses.

AIM: The purpose of this study was to translate the National Institutes of Health (NIH)-Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) into a church-based setting. METHODS: The lifestyle arm of the NIH-DPP was implemented in an African American Baptist church. Church members 18 years or older completed a risk screen during Sunday service followed by fasting glucose (FG) testing at the church during the week. Persons with prediabetes participated in a 16-session DPP conducted over 4 months. Participation rates, height, weight, blood pressure (BP) and FG were followed for 12 months post-intervention. Fifty participants completed the risk screen, 26 were at risk for diabetes, 16 of 26 received FG testing, and 8 had prediabetes (FG = 100- 125 mg/dL). RESULTS: The mean participation rate was 10.4 (65%) sessions. Following the intervention, weight, systolic and diastolic BP, and FG decreased by 7.5 lb (3.6%), 16 mm Hg (11.7%), 12 mm Hg (14.0%), and 5 mg/dL (4.8%), respectively (P < .05). In comparison with baseline, significant reductions were evident at 6 and 12 months postintervention for all endpoints. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated successful translation of the 16-session NIH-DPP into a church-based setting. Future studies should test this intervention in churches of different sizes and denominations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Central European Watershed divides the Rhine-Main catchment and the Danube catchment. In the Early Medieval period, when ships were important means of transportation, Charlemagne decided to link both catchments by the construction of a canal connecting the Schwabian Rezat and the Altmühl rivers. The artificial waterway would provide a continuous inland navigation route from the North Sea to the Black Sea. The shortcut is known as Fossa Carolina and represents one of the most important Early Medieval engineering achievements in Europe. Despite the important geostrategic relevance of the construction it is not clarified whether the canal was actually used as a navigation waterway. We present new geophysical data and in situ findings from the trench fills that prove for the first time a total length of the constructed Carolingian canal of at least 2300 metres. We have evidence for a conceptual width of the artificial water course between 5 and 6 metres and a water depth of at least 60 to 80 cm. This allows a crossing way passage of Carolingian cargo scows with a payload of several tons. There is strong evidence for clayey to silty layers in the trench fills which reveal suspension load limited stillwater deposition and, therefore, the evidence of former Carolingian and post-Carolingian ponds. These findings are strongly supported by numerous sapropel layers within the trench fills. Our results presented in this study indicate an extraordinarily advanced construction level of the known course of the canal. Here, the excavated levels of Carolingian trench bottoms were generally sufficient for the efficient construction of stepped ponds and prove a final concept for a summit canal. We have evidence for the artificial Carolingian dislocation of the watershed and assume a sophisticated Early Medieval hydrological engineering concept for supplying the summit of the canal with adequate water.

BACKGROUND: The neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone is well known as a mediator of skin pigmentation. More recently, it has been shown that alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone also plays pivotal roles in energy homeostasis, sexual function, and inflammation or immunomodulation. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone exerts its antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory effects by binding to the melanocortin-1 receptor, and since T cells are important effectors during immune responses, we investigated the effects of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on T cell function. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: T cells were treated with alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and subsequently, their phenotype and function was analyzed in a contact allergy as well as a melanoma model. Furthermore, the relevance of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-mediated signaling for the induction of cytotoxicity was assessed in CD8(+) T cells from melanoma patients with functional and nonfunctional melanocortin-1 receptors. Here we demonstrate that the melanocortin-1 receptor is expressed by murine as well as human CD8(+) T cells, and we furthermore show that alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone/melanocortin-1 receptor-mediated signaling is critical for the induction of cytotoxicity in human and murine CD8(+) T cells. Upon adoptive transfer, alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone-treated murine CD8(+) T cells significantly reduced contact allergy responses in recipient mice. Additionally, the presented data indicate that alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone via signaling through a functional melanocortin-1 receptor augmented antitumoral immunity by up-regulating the expression of cytotoxic genes and enhancing the cytolytic activity in tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Together, these results point to an important role of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in MHC class I-restricted cytotoxicity. Therefore, treatment of contact allergies or skin cancer with alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone or other more stable agonists of melanocortin-1 receptor might ameliorate disease or improve antitumoral immune responses.

Tobacco dependence is a chronic condition driven by nicotine addiction. Successful quitting can be increased by health care provider intervention and evidence-based treatment. CDC assessed national estimates of cigarette smoking cessation indicators among U.S. adults using 2022 National Health Interview Survey data. In 2022, approximately two thirds (67.7%) of the 28.8 million U.S. adults who smoked wanted to quit, and approximately one half (53.3%) made a quit attempt, but only 8.8% quit smoking. One half of adults who smoked and saw a health professional during the past year received health professional advice (50.5%) or assistance (49.2%) to quit smoking. Among those who tried to quit, 38.3% used treatment (i.e., counseling or medication). Adults who usually smoked menthol (versus nonmenthol) cigarettes had higher prevalences of quitting interest (72.2% versus 65.4%; p<0.05) and past-year quit attempts (57.3% versus 50.4%; p<0.05), lower prevalences of receiving quit advice (48.2% versus 53.8%; p<0.05) and using cessation treatment (35.2% versus 41.5%; p<0.05), but similar prevalence of quit success (9.5% versus 7.9%; p = 0.19). Opportunities exist for both public health and health care sectors to increase smoking cessation, including expanding access to and utilization of cessation services and supports. Incorporating equitable cessation strategies into all commercial tobacco prevention and control efforts can help advance and support smoking cessation for all population groups., Competing Interests: All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

Introduction: Menthol cigarettes have been associated with increased smoking initiation. Although numerous studies have focused on correlates of menthol cigarette smoking among youths, fewer studies have assessed the prevalence and correlates of overall menthol-flavored tobacco product use among middle and high school students., Methods: We analyzed 2022 National Youth Tobacco Survey data to estimate the prevalence of menthol-flavored tobacco product use among US middle and high school students who used tobacco products within the past 30 days. Characteristics associated with menthol-flavored tobacco product use were also examined., Results: Use of menthol-flavored tobacco products was reported by 23.8% of students who currently used any tobacco product and by 39.5% of students who currently used any flavored tobacco product. Among students who reported past 30-day use of a flavored tobacco product, characteristics associated with a higher prevalence of menthol-flavored tobacco product use included non-Hispanic White race and ethnicity, frequent tobacco product use, use of multiple tobacco products, wanting to use a tobacco product within the first 30 minutes of awakening, and craving tobacco products within the past 30 days., Conclusion: Unlike results of prior research focused on cigarette smoking among young people, prevalence of use of any menthol-flavored tobacco product was highest among non-Hispanic White youths. Any use of menthol-flavored tobacco products of any type (alone or in combination with other flavors) among young people may be associated with continued product use and symptoms of dependence.

Introduction: Monitoring menthol cigarette use allows for identification of potential health disparities. We examined sociodemographic and temporal differences in menthol cigarette use among US adults who smoke., Methods: We analyzed data from the 1999-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for adults aged 20 years or older who smoke (N = 11,431) using binary logistic regression., Results: Among US adults who smoke, 28.8% used menthol cigarettes. After adjusting for age, sex, race and ethnicity, education, income-to-poverty ratio, and health status, the prevalence of menthol use among adults who smoke increased on average by 3.8% (95% CI, 2.7%-4.9%) annually. Non-Hispanic Black adults had the highest average prevalence of menthol cigarette use, 73.0% (95% CI, 70.9%-75.2%), and Mexican American adults had higher average annual increase in menthol cigarette use, 7.1% (95% CI, 4.0%-10.3%). Adults with fair or poor health status had a 4.3% annual increase in menthol cigarette use (95% CI, 2.5%-6.1%). The adjusted prevalence ratios of menthol cigarette use were 1.61 (95% CI, 1.39-1.83) for adults aged 20-29 years compared with those aged 65 years or older, 1.41 (95% CI, 1.32-1.49) for female adults compared with male adults, and 1.17 (95% CI, 1.07-1.27) for high school graduates or higher compared with those with no high school diploma., Conclusion: Non-Hispanic Black adults who smoke had the highest prevalence of menthol cigarette use among all racial and ethnic groups; the prevalence of menthol cigarette use among adults who smoke increased especially among Mexican American adults, younger adults, and adults who reported fair to poor health status.

Background: One of the goals of the Multi-site Clinical Assessment of Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (MCAM) study was to evaluate whether clinicians experienced in diagnosing and caring for patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) recognized the same clinical entity. Methods: We enrolled participants from seven specialty clinics in the United States. We used baseline data (n = 465) on standardized questions measuring general clinical characteristics, functional impairment, post-exertional malaise, fatigue, sleep, neurocognitive/autonomic symptoms, pain, and other symptoms to evaluate whether patient characteristics differed by clinic. Results: We found few statistically significant and no clinically significant differences between clinics in their patients' standardized measures of ME/CFS symptoms and function. Strikingly, patients in each clinic sample and overall showed a wide distribution in all scores and measures. Conclusions: Illness heterogeneity may be an inherent feature of ME/CFS. Presenting research data in scatter plots or histograms will help clarify the challenge. Relying on case-control study designs without subgrouping or stratification of ME/CFS illness characteristics may limit the reproducibility of research findings and could obscure underlying mechanisms.

Introduction: Increasing quitting among people who smoke cigarettes is the quickest approach to reducing tobacco-related disease and death., Methods: We analyzed data from the 2018-2019 Tobacco Use Supplement to the Current Population Survey for 137,471 adult self-respondents from all 50 US states and the District of Columbia to estimate state-specific prevalence of current tobacco product use, interest in quitting smoking, past-year quit attempts, recent successful cessation (past-year quit lasting ≥6 months), receipt of advice to quit smoking from a medical doctor, and use of cessation medications and/or counseling to quit., Results: Prevalence of current any-tobacco use (use every day or some days) ranged from 10.2% in California to 29.0% in West Virginia. The percentage of adults who currently smoked cigarettes and were interested in quitting ranged from 68.2% in Alabama to 87.5% in Connecticut; made a past-year quit attempt ranged from 44.1% in Tennessee to 62.8% in Rhode Island; reported recent successful cessation ranged from 4.6% in West Virginia and Wisconsin to 10.8% in South Dakota; received advice to quit from a medical doctor ranged from 63.3% in Colorado to 86.9% in Rhode Island; and used medications and/or counseling to quit ranged from 25.5% in Nevada to 50.1% in Massachusetts. Several states with the highest cigarette smoking prevalence reported the lowest prevalence of interest in quitting, quit attempts, receipt of advice to quit, and use of counseling and/or medication, and the highest prevalence of e-cigarette, smokeless tobacco, and cigar use., Conclusion: Adults who smoke struggle with smoking cessation and could benefit from additional intervention.

Objectives: Surveillance of cigarette smoking behavior provides evidence for evaluating the impact of current tobacco control measures. We examined temporal changes and demographic differences in the incidence and mean age of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly in the United States., Methods: We conducted retrospective birth-cohort and cross-sectional analyses using self-reported data from the 1997-2018 National Health Interview Survey to evaluate trends and demographic differences in the incidence and mean age of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly among participants aged 18-84 years. We estimated the incidence and mean age of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly by using Poisson and linear regression., Results: Among adults born during 1950-1999, the incidence of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly before age 35 years decreased by 18.8% (95% CI, 17.0%-20.7%) per 10 years, with a peak incidence at age about age 18 years. Male, non-Hispanic White, and US-born people had a higher incidence of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly than female, other racial and ethnic, and non-US-born people, respectively ( P < .001 for all). From 1997 to 2018, the mean age of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly decreased by 0.4% (95% CI, 0.2%-0.6%) per 10 years among adults who ever smoked., Conclusion: The incidence of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly decreased dramatically at all ages during the study period, which suggests a positive impact of current tobacco control measures. For evaluating trends in starting to smoke cigarettes regularly, incidence can be a more sensitive indicator of temporal change than mean age. Differences in smoking incidence by demographic subgroup suggest that additional opportunities exist to further reduce the incidence of starting to smoke cigarettes regularly., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Introduction: Quitlines are free, accessible evidence-based services that may provide an important resource for people facing barriers to clinical treatment for cessation of tobacco use., Methods: Using 2019 intake data from the National Quitline Data Warehouse, we examined quitline service usage, stratified by sociodemographic characteristics. Only US quitlines reporting service type data were included (n = 40 [of 51]). Callers (aged ≥12 years) who registered with a quitline, reported current use of a tobacco product, and received at least 1 service comprised the analytic data. Chi-square tests examined differences in quitline services received by participant characteristics., Results: In 2019, 182,544 people reporting current use of a tobacco product received at least 1 service from a quitline in 39 states and the District of Columbia. Among them, 80.4% had attained less than a college or university degree and 70.4% were uninsured or enrolled in Medicaid or in Medicare (aged <65 years). By educational attainment (aged ≥25 years), receipt of cessation medications ranged from 59.4% of callers with a college or university degree to 65.0% of callers with a high school diploma (P < .001). The range by insurance coverage was 59.3% of callers with private insurance to 74.7% of callers with Medicare (aged <65 years) (P < .001)., Conclusion: Quitlines served as a resource for low-SES populations in 2019, providing cessation services to many people who may face barriers to clinical cessation treatment. Strengthening and expanding quitlines may help to increase cessation among populations with a disproportionately high prevalence of tobacco product use and improve the health and well-being of people in the US.

Commercial cigarette smoking among U.S. adults has declined during the preceding 5 decades (1,2); however, tobacco product use remains the leading cause of preventable disease and death in the United States, and some populations continue to be disproportionately affected by tobacco use (1,2). To assess recent national estimates of commercial tobacco use among U.S. persons aged ≥18 years, CDC, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Cancer Institute analyzed 2021 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) data. In 2021, an estimated 46 million U.S. adults (18.7%) reported currently using any tobacco product, including cigarettes (11.5%), e-cigarettes (4.5%), cigars (3.5%), smokeless tobacco (2.1%), and pipes (including hookah)* (0.9%). † Among those who used tobacco products, 77.5% reported using combustible products (cigarettes, cigars, or pipes), and 18.1% reported using two or more tobacco products. § The prevalence of current use of any tobacco product use was higher among the following groups: men; persons aged <65 years; persons of non-Hispanic other races; non-Hispanic White (White) persons ¶ ; residents of rural (nonmetropolitan) areas; financially disadvantaged (income-to-poverty ratio = 0-1.99); lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) persons; those uninsured or enrolled in Medicaid; adults whose highest level of education was a general educational development (GED) certificate; who had a disability; and who had serious psychological distress. Continued surveillance of tobacco product use, implementation of evidence-based tobacco control strategies (e.g., hard-hitting media campaigns, smoke-free policies, and tobacco price increases), conducting linguistically and culturally appropriate educational campaigns, and FDA regulation of tobacco products will aid in reducing tobacco-related disease, death, and disparities among U.S. adults (3,4)., Competing Interests: All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

Introduction: People who smoke cigarettes are at greater risk of developing chronic diseases and related complications. Our study provides recent estimates and trends in cigarette smoking among people with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and diabetes., Methods: Using data from the 2019 National Health Interview Survey, we calculated the prevalence of current and former cigarette smoking among adults aged 18 to 44 years, 45 to 64 years, and 65 years or older with chronic diseases. Those diseases were cancers associated with smoking, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and/or stroke (N = 3,741). Using data from the 2010-2019 National Health Interview Surveys, we assessed trends in current cigarette smoking by chronic disease by using the National Cancer Institute's Joinpoint Regression Program., Results: In 2019, current cigarette smoking prevalence among adults with chronic diseases associated with smoking ranged from 6.0% among adults aged 65 or older with diabetes to 51.9% among adults aged 18 to 44 years with 2 or more chronic diseases. During 2010 through 2019, a significant decrease occurred in current cigarette smoking among adults aged 45 to 64 years with diabetes., Conclusion: Overall, smoking prevalence remains high and relatively unchanged among people with chronic diseases associated with smoking, even as the overall prevalence of cigarette smoking in the US continues to decrease. The lack of progress in smoking cessation among adults with chronic diseases associated with smoking suggests that access, promotion, and integration of cessation treatment across the continuum of health care (ie, oncology, pulmonology, and cardiology settings) may be important in the success of smoking cessation in this population.

Cigarette smoking remains the leading cause of preventable disease and death in the United States (1). The prevalence of current cigarette smoking among U.S. adults has declined over the past several decades, with a prevalence of 13.7% in 2018 (2). However, a variety of combustible, noncombustible, and electronic tobacco products are available in the United States (1,3). To assess recent national estimates of tobacco product use among U.S. adults aged ≥18 years, CDC analyzed data from the 2019 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). In 2019, an estimated 50.6 million U.S. adults (20.8%) reported currently using any tobacco product, including cigarettes (14.0%), e-cigarettes (4.5%), cigars (3.6%), smokeless tobacco (2.4%), and pipes* (1.0%). † Most current tobacco product users (80.5%) reported using combustible products (cigarettes, cigars, or pipes), and 18.6% reported using two or more tobacco products. § The prevalence of any current tobacco product use was higher among males; adults aged ≤65 years; non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) adults; those whose highest level of educational attainment was a General Educational Development (GED) certificate; those with an annual household income <$35,000; lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) adults; uninsured adults and those with Medicaid; those with a disability; or those with mild, moderate, or severe generalized anxiety disorder. E-cigarette use was highest among adults aged 18-24 years (9.3%), with over half (56.0%) of these young adults reporting that they had never smoked cigarettes. Implementing comprehensive, evidence-based, population level interventions (e.g., tobacco price increases, comprehensive smoke-free policies, high-impact antitobacco media campaigns, and barrier-free cessation coverage), in coordination with regulation of the manufacturing, marketing, and sale of all tobacco products, can reduce tobacco-related disease and death in the United States (1,4). As part of a comprehensive approach, targeted interventions are also warranted to reach subpopulations with the highest prevalence of use, which might vary by tobacco product type., Competing Interests: All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

Introduction: While cigarette smoking prevalence is declining among US adults, quit rates may differ between white and African American smokers. Here, we summarize the literature on smoking cessation behaviors in whites and African Americans across four study designs and report the findings of new analyses of International Tobacco Control (ITC) US Survey cohort data., Methods: We reviewed 32 publications containing 39 relevant analyses that compared quit attempts and abstinence between US whites and African Americans. Two additional longitudinal analyses were conducted on 821 white and 76 African American cigarette smokers from Waves 7 and 8 of the ITC US Survey (mean follow-up = 19 months)., Results: Of 17 total analyses of quit attempts, nine (including the ITC US Survey) observed that African American smokers were more likely than whites to attempt to quit during a given year; seven found no differences. Whites were more likely than African Americans to be abstinent in five of six retrospective cohort analyses and in two of five considered community- and population-based cohort studies. Four of these 11 analyses, including one from the ITC US Survey, found no differences., Conclusions: Of 11 population- or community-based analyses, all seven that found significant differences indicated that whites were more likely to quit than African Americans. These findings, combined with the similar results from population-based birth cohort analyses, support the conclusion that white smokers are more likely to quit than African American smokers. Efforts to encourage and support quitting among all tobacco users remain a priority., Implications: This article provides a review of the literature on smoking cessation among African American and white smokers, and adds new analyses that compare quit attempts and abstinence between US African Americans and whites. Results demonstrate a clear distinction between the findings of cross-sectional and retrospective cohort studies with those of cohort studies. Reasons for these differences merit further study., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Recent studies have suggested that about 1 in 5 smokers report switching brands per year. However, these studies only report switching between brands. The current study estimated the rates of switching both within and between brand families and examining factors associated with brand and brand style switching., Methods: Data for this analysis are from the International Tobacco Control 2006-2011 US adult smoker cohort survey waves 5-8 (N=3248). A switch between brands was defined as reporting two different cigarette brand names for two successive waves, while switching within brand was defined as reporting the same brand name, but a different brand style. Repeated measures regression was used to determine factors associated with both switch types., Results: A total of 1475 participants reported at least two successive waves of data with complete information on brand name and style. Overall switching increased from 44.9% in 2007-2008 to 58.4% in 2010-2011. Switching between brand names increased from 16% to 29%, while switches within the same brand name to a different style ranged from 29% to 33%. Between-brand switching was associated with younger age, lower income, non-white racial group and use of a discount brand, whereas, within-brand switching was associated with younger age and the use of a premium brand cigarette., Conclusions: Nearly half of smokers in the USA switched their cigarette brand or brand style within a year. Switching between brands may be more price motivated, while switching within brands may be motivated by price and other brand characteristics such as product length., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/)

Objective: This paper examines trends in cigarette prices and corresponding purchasing patterns over a 9-year period and explores characteristics associated with the quantity and location of cigarettes purchased by adult smokers in the USA., Methods: The data for this paper come from a nationally representative longitudinal survey of 6669 adult smokers (18 years and older) who were recruited and surveyed between 2002 and 2011. Telephone interviews were conducted annually, and smokers were asked a series of questions about the location, quantity (ie, single vs multiple packs or cartons) and price paid for their most recent cigarette purchase. Generalised estimating equations were used to assess trends and model characteristics associated with cigarette purchasing behaviours., Results: Between 2002 and 2011, the reported purchase of cigarette cartons and the use of coupons declined while multipack purchases increased. Compared with those purchasing by single packs, those who purchased by multipacks and cartons saved an average of $0.53 and $1.63, respectively. Purchases in grocery and discount stores declined, while purchases in tobacco only outlets increased slightly. Female, older, white smokers were more likely to purchase cigarettes by the carton or in multipacks and in locations commonly associated with tax avoidance (ie, duty free shops, Indian reservations)., Conclusions: As cigarette prices have risen, smokers have begun purchasing via multipacks instead of cartons. As carton sales have declined, purchases from grocery and discount stores have also declined, while an increasing number of smokers report low tax sources as their usual purchase location for cigarettes., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.)

Aims: To evaluate trends in use of stop-smoking medications (SSMs) before and after varenicline (Chantix™) was introduced to the market-place in the United States, and to determine whether varenicline reached segments of the population unlikely to use other SSMs., Design: Cohort survey., Setting: United States., Participants: A nationally representative sample of adult smokers in the United States interviewed as part of the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey between 2004 and 2011. Primary analyses used cross-sectional data from 1737 smokers who attempted to quit (∼450 per wave)., Measurements: Reporting an attempt to quit smoking; use of each of the following types of SSMs for the purpose of quitting smoking: nicotine gum, nicotine patch, other nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion and varenicline., Findings: There was a significant increase in the rate of use of any SSM among quit attempters across the study period [odds ratio (OR) = 1.15, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.10-1.21 per year]. This increase was largest after varenicline was introduced (OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.07-1.26 per year); however, there was a decline in nicotine patch use during this time (OR = 0.87, 95% CI = 0.76-0.99 per year). Varenicline users were generally similar to users of other SSMs but differed from those who did not use any SSMs, in that they tended to be older (OR = 5.46, P = 0.024), to be white (OR = 2.33, P = 0.002), to have high incomes (OR = 1.85, P = 0.005), to have high nicotine dependence prior to quitting (OR = 2.40, P = 0.001) and to have used medication in the past (OR = 3.29, P < 0.001)., Conclusions: The introduction of varenicline in the United States coincided with a net increase in attempts to quit smoking and, among these, a net increase in use of stop-smoking medications. The demographic profile of varenicline users is similar to the profile of those who use other stop-smoking medications and different from the profile of those who attempt to quit without any medication., (© 2014 Society for the Study of Addiction.)

Background: Little is understood about childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) and lifetime violent crime perpetration., Objectives: The purpose was to evaluate TBI before the age of 15 years and other childhood environmental factors, mental health, and lifetime history of committing a violent crime., Methods: A cross-sectional study of 636 male and female offenders from a southeastern state prison population was conducted using Chi-squared tests, t tests, and logistic regression to determine factors associated with ever committing a violent crime., Results: Committing a violent crime was associated with male gender, younger age, greater childhood sexual abuse (CSA), greater childhood emotional abuse, no TBI by the age of 15 years, and greater neighborhood adversity during childhood., Discussion: Although TBI has been related to violent and nonviolent crime, this study showed that absence of TBI by the age of 15 years was associated with lifetime violent crime when adjusting for CSA, childhood emotional abuse, and neighborhood adversity during childhood. This builds upon neurobehavioral development literature suggesting that CSA and the stress of violence exposure without direct physical victimization may play a more critical role in lifetime violent criminal behavior than childhood TBI. Violence risk reduction must occur during childhood focusing on decreasing adversity, especially violence exposure as a witness as well as a direct victim.

Objective: The purpose of this paper was to examine trends in the use of premium and discount cigarette brands and determine correlates of type of brand used and brand switching., Methods: Data from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) US adult smoker cohort survey were analysed. The total study sample included 6669 adult cigarette smokers recruited and followed from 2002 to 2011 over eight different survey waves. Each survey wave included an average of 1700 smokers per survey with replenishment of those lost to follow-up., Results: Over the eight survey waves, a total of 260 different cigarette brands were reported by smokers, of which 17% were classified as premium and 83% as discount brands. Marlboro, Newport, and Camel were the most popular premium brands reported by smokers in our sample over all eight survey waves. The percentage of smokers using discount brands increased between 2002 and 2011, with a marked increase in brand switching from premium to discount cigarettes observed after 2009 corresponding to the $0.61 increase in the federal excise tax on cigarettes. Cigarette brand preferences varied by age group and income levels with younger, higher income smokers more likely to report smoking premium brand cigarettes, while older, middle and lower income, heavier smokers were more likely to report using discount brands., Conclusions: Our data suggest that demographic and smoking trends favour the continued growth of low priced cigarette brands. From a tobacco control perspective, the findings from this study suggest that governments should consider enacting stronger minimum pricing laws in order to keep the base price of cigarettes high, since aggressive price marketing will likely continue to be used by manufacturers to compete for the shrinking pool of remaining smokers in the population.