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This study aims to evaluate the presence of marine litter in relation to the main human activities and during some different meteorological conditions. Five surveys were performed along Boccasette spit to collect the stranded items, in order to assess the density of debris and the beach cleanliness. The main litter macro-category is represented by artificial polymer materials (96%), while the others macro-categories represent the 4% of collected items. The main sources of the marine litter have been attributed to improper waste disposal and fishing/aquaculture activities.

Anthropogenic marine debris (AMD) represent a global threat for aquatic environments. It is important to locate and monitor the distribution and presence of macroplastics along beaches to prevent degradation into microplastics (MP), which are potentially more harmful and more difficult to remove. UAV imaging represents a quick method for acquiring pictures with a ground spatial resolution of a few centimeters. In this work, we investigate strategies for AMD mapping on beaches with different ground resolutions and with elevation and multispectral data in support of RGB orthomosaics. Operators with varying levels of expertise and knowledge of the coastal environment map the AMD on four to five transects manually, using a range of photogrammetric tools. The initial survey was repeated after one year; in both surveys, beach litter was collected and further analyzed in the laboratory. Operators assign three levels of confidence when recognizing and describing AMD. Preliminary validation of results shows that items identified with high confidence were almost always classified properly. Approaching the detected items in terms of surface instead of a simple count increased the percentage of mapped litter significantly when compared to those collected. Multispectral data in near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths and digital surface models (DSMs) did not significantly improve the efficiency of manual mapping, even if vegetation features were removed using NDVI maps. In conclusion, this research shows that a good solution for performing beach AMD mapping can be represented by using RGB imagery with a spatial resolution of about 200 pix/m for detecting macroplastics and, in particular, focusing on the largest items. From the point of view of assessing and monitoring potential sources of MP, this approach is not only feasible but also quick, practical, and sustainable.

Salt marsh evolution is strongly affected by tidal processes and ecology, which regulate sediment accretion and erosional rates. A balance between marsh erosion and deposition in a restored tidal wetland is crucial for analyzing restoration strategies to adopt in a natural context. Here, we present an integrated approach monitoring salt marsh seasonal changes over several months in a microtidal restored salt marsh of the Paul S. Sarbanes Ecosystem Restoration Project at Poplar Island (MD, USA). The project is undertaken at a restoration site where sediment dredged from the shipping channels in the upper Chesapeake Bay is being used to restore a tidal marsh habitat in mid-Chesapeake Bay. We flew an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) with an RGB and a multispectral camera to obtain a high-resolution map of the planimetric position of vegetation and to monitor the health of the marsh vegetation in diverse seasons. Due to its extension of 400 m by 400 m, a total of four flight plans were necessary to cover the entire marsh flying at a 40 m altitude obtaining a 2 cm Ground Sample Distance (GSD). This technique provides reliable results at a very low cost, enabling an accurate assessment of the marsh platforms to be conducted over time, due to both the very high spatial resolution and the precise georeferencing of the images for the comparisons. Our results show seasonal variability in the two dominant species colonizing the low marsh, Spartina alterniflora, and high marsh, Sporobolus pumilus. While the lower marshes showed a higher variability along seasons, the up-land vegetation showed persistent green foliage during cold seasons. Detecting salt marsh evolution and seasonality coupled with field measurements can help to improve the accuracy of hydrodynamic and sediment transport models. Understanding the drivers of salt marsh evolution is vital for informing restoration practices and designs, in order to improve coastal resilience, and develop and coastal management strategies.

Tourism has many environmental impacts and particularly in marine Protected Areas, which are declared to protect biological and environmental values. The long-term objective of Protected Areas can be complex considering that preservation of a site should not be in conflict with the right of user's access and with the quality of visitors experiences. Consequently, solutions may be found to find a balance between preservation and recreational uses that can be sustained by the environmental resources of the area. In this study we propose a methodology to help park manager to develop attractive sustainable tourism. The method is based on tourist perception assessment using website reviews and specifically TripAdvisor. We analyzed 637 reviews containing overall satisfaction, environmental aspects, transport means, service and management aspects. On the other hand, the calculation of carrying capacity, based on the Cifuentes method, provided insights about the interaction of human activities with the environment, considering biophysical characteristics, social factors and management policies. Our results suggest that the tourist carrying capacity is in its lower level and that tourist experience is judged excellent. Finally, the analysis of the TripAdvisor reviews may represent a useful instrument for decision makers by identifying negative aspects and solutions.

The Po River delta is characterized by a large system of shallow lagoons, wetlands, and reclaimed lands. Like many other deltaic regions, the Po Delta has largely subsided due to natural processes and anthropogenic activities, with a strong impact on its geomorphological evolution and significant socio- economic consequences. This paper aimed at highlighting the evolution of the study area over the last 120 years, analysing the land-uses changes in relation to the land subsidence, and using these findings to discuss the main management issues of this fragile low lying area in the decades to come. The analysis of the land use evolution from 1892 to 2015 and the information derived from the metrics measurement suggest a simplification of the land use with a decrease of the saltmarsh extent and an enlargement of the agricultural cover. The analysis of land subsidence, mainly due to gas-bearing groundwater withdrawal, confirms a strong impact on the delta territory, and in particular on its geomorphological asset. In the early 1900s the elevation of the delta plain ranged between −1.0 and +1.6 m above msl, while in 2007 it reduced between −2.8 to +0.3 m above msl. The land reclamation projects have largely increased the farmland usable for crop production but the concurrent loss of land elevation has resulted in a territory extremely difficult to be managed. Because of its elevation, the delta is particularly vulnerable to weather and marine events. As a consequence, the present management of the area is mainly aimed at maintaining the agricultural productivity. Unfortunately, if the human impacts will continue with the actual trend, the stability of the natural ecosystems, such as the wetlands, which represent important socioeconomic realities, will be further undermined. Surely, the conservation of these natural environments should be a priority in the future land use management.

Plastic debris in the coastal environment is subject to complex and poorly characterized weathering processes. To better understand how key environmental factors affect plastic degradation in a coastal zone, we conducted an in situ experiment. We deployed strips of high density polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS) in paired coastal areas of contrasting conditions (hydrodynamic activity: erosional or depositional; water depths: subtidal or intertidal). Strips were collected after environmental exposures at 4, 8, and 43 weeks and analyzed for change in mass, algal biofilm growth, and imaged by petrographic and electron microscopy (SEM-EDS). Significant surface erosion was evident on both polymers, and was more rapid and more extensive with PS. Degradation of PS was responsive to intensity of hydrodynamic activity, and was greater at intertidal depths, highlighting the critical role played by photo-oxidation in the coastal zone, and suggesting that algal biofilms may slow degradation by playing a photo-protective role.

Tidal processes regulating sediment accretion rates and vegetated platform erosion in tidal systems strongly affect salt marsh evolution. A balance between erosion and deposition in a restored salt marsh is crucial for analyzing restoration strategies to be adopted within a natural context. Marsh morphology is also coupled with tidal mudflats and channel networks and this makes micro-tidal systems crucial for a detailed assessment of restoration interventions. Here, we present a methodological approach for monitoring channel morphodynamics and vegetation variations over a time frame of six years in a low tidal energy salt marsh of the Paul S. Sarbanes Ecosystem Restoration Project at Poplar Island (Maryland, USA). The project is a restoration site where sediment dredged from the shipping channels in the upper Chesapeake Bay is used to restore a tidal marsh habitat in mid-Chesapeake Bay. Aerial surveys with an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) have been performed for the high-resolution mapping of a small tidal system. Flight missions were planned to obtain a Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of 2 cm. Structure-from-Motion (SfM) and Multi-View-Stereo (MVS) algorithms have been used to reconstruct the 3D geometry of the site. The mapping of channel morphology and an elevation assessment on the mudflat were performed using orthomosaics, Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) and GNSS survey. The results highlight that the workflow adopted in this pilot work is suitable to assess the geomorphological evolution over time in a micro-tidal system. However, issues were encountered for salt marsh due to the presence of dense vegetation. The UAV-based photogrammetry approach with GNSS RTK ground surveys can hence be replicated in similar sites all over the world to evaluate restoration interventions and to develop new strategies for a better management of existing shorelines.

It is now widely recognized that marine plastics, which are strongly resistant to chemical and biological degradation, have become a widespread and massive pollutant in the world’s oceans. Despite this resistance, in the environment, larger plastic items fragment and degrade into secondary microplastics which are ingestible by some marine organisms and are therefore a potential threat to aquatic foodwebs. The present study aims to better understand factors that contribute to the weathering of plastics in a coastal marine environment, where most microplastics appear to be generated. Here we performed a field experiment to test the influence of different coastal conditions on macro-plastic weathering. Strips of commercial grade high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS) were mounted in replicate on racks (similar in appearance to keys on a glockenspiel, though all of the same length) and deployed at different treatment depths (subtidal versus intertidal) and different treatment hydrodynamic intensity zones (erosional versus depositional) in a sub-estuary of Chesapeake Bay (Maryland, USA). Strips were collected after environmental exposure of 4, 8 and 43 weeks and were analyzed for mass loss, surface chlorophyll accumulation, and surface appearance via SEM imaging.We observed the PS strips degraded more quickly than the HDPE strips. The results show minor mass variation, in some samples even a slight mass increase, contrary to expectation. This was probably due to the deposition of clay and the presence of microorganisms into the microstructure of the strips, as observed by SEM. Moreover, the SEM images show different kind of fragmentation, with holes or with desquamations. The fragmentation was most marked for the PS strips located at intertidal depths caused by a more intense hydrodynamic energy. Finally, an increase over time was observed in the concentration of chlorophyll in both subtidal depositional PS strips and in subtidal erosional HDPE strips, associated with a lower hydrodynamic energy compared to the intertidal zones. This appears to confer a greater protection of the plastic which therefore undergoes less weathering.

This study developed a new integrated assessment method for sandy beaches, using three recreational Italian beaches as case study, with the purpose of obtaining their economic value. The method was based on a geomorphological assessment of the beaches and a carrying capacity evaluation; an economic analysis through the elicitation of the willingness to pay (WTP); a social assessment of beachgoers’ attitude and opinion. For the selected beaches, which differed for typology, location, shape, level of urbanization and tourism, we identified the available surfaces for recreational uses trough the observation of satellite images. WTP results indicate that respondents would be willing to pay a contribution from 9 to 15€ per season. WTP is principally positive correlated with some variables like beach frequentation, residence in the localities, available services on the beach. The value of the selected beaches was calculated multiplying the sustainable carrying capacity of each site with their related maximum WTP. It was found that the values of the beaches varied from more than 50M€/season at a popular urban beach to 1M€/season at a remote natural beach. The comparison of beach valuation and investments made by managers of the beaches show a gap. Therefore, the huge non-market value of these beaches might need decision-makers to guarantee continuous beach restoration measures.

The study aims to analyze and quantify compositions of marine litter along 2 beaches of Asinara Island-Italy during 3 surveys (winter’17, spring-summer‘19). Method used was based on guidelines of UNEP, JRC and DEFISHGEAR project. Preliminary results show that 1917 items were collected at Cala dei Ponzesi, while 816 were identified in 2019 surveys. 289 items were collected in 2 2019 surveys at Cala Spalmatore. It appears that plastic is the most important category of litter and plastic fragments, lolly sticks, plastic caps/lids unidentified, string and cord (

Our study provides a first dataset on marine litter collected at five pocket beaches situated in the northern Sardinia (Italy). The monitoring method refers to the operational guidelines for rapid beach assessment of beach waste described by UNEP. We classified the 7975 items collected according to the eight categories and 99 types. Their analysis indicates that plastic is the most common litter category and, plastic fragments are the most frequent debris. The density ranges from 0.05 to 2.82 item/m2. The top 10 highly present marine litter reveals that land-based litter is the main source, probably due to the lack of waste management, massive tourism and recreational activities. In addition, landscape morphology affects the redistribution of marine litter. Overall, these first results are part of a wider study on the presence of marine litter in the pocket beaches of north Sardinia to provide coastal managers and policy makers mitigation strategies.

The Dosso degli Angeli reservoir is located along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, approximately 20 km north of Ravenna, Italy, in the nearby of the Comacchio Lagoons. The field was discovered in 1968 and the production started in 1971. The production strongly decreased from 1998 to 2004 and suspended in 2004. In 2012 Eni, the oil company managing the reservoir, has planned to complete the exploitation of the residual reserves over the period from 2013 to 2023. An elasto-plastic FE model provided by Eni was used to measure the expected residual land subsidence, whose maximum value will amount to 2.8 cm. In this work the environmental impact assessment of the expected land subsidence has been quantified on the lowlying coastland above the reservoir. Initially, the subsidence map has been used to quantify the displacement gradient ξ in correspondence of sensitive structures (bridges, pumping stations, lagoon embankments, historical buildings, power plants and a power lines) in order to assess the possible damages. Because the maximum ξ value amount to 1 × 10 − 5 , i.e. 1 mm over 100 m, no damage is expected to the structures. Moreover, hydrological (HEC-HMS) and hydraulic (HEC-RAS) models have been used to evaluate the possible effects of the land subsidence on the efficiency of the main drainage networks used to keep dry the area, which is mainly located below the mean sea level. The results have shown a negligible loss of efficiency of the drainage system. The study allows concluding that land subsidence due to the residual gas production from the Dosso degli Angeli reservoir will not affects the environment, hydraulic safety, and infrastructures of the Comacchio Lagoons and the lowlying coastland surrounding this precious natural environment.

The balance of a coastal environment is particularly complex: the continuous formation of dunes, their destruction as a result of violent storms, the growth of vegetation and the consequent growth of the dunes themselves are phenomena that significantly affect this balance. This work presents an approach to the long-term monitoring of a complex dune system by means of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Four different surveys were carried out between November 2015 and November 2016. Aerial photogrammetric data were acquired during flights by a DJI Phantom 2 and a DJI Phantom 3 with cameras in a nadiral arrangement. GNSS receivers in Network Real Time Kinematic (NRTK) mode were used to frame models in the European Terrestrial Reference System. Processing of the captured images consisted in reconstruction of a three-dimensional model using the principles of Structure from Motion (SfM). Particular care was necessary due to the vegetation: filtering of the dense cloud, mainly based on slope detection, was performed to minimize this issue. Final products of the SfM approach were represented by Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of the sandy coastal environment. Each model was validated by comparison through specially surveyed points. Other analyses were also performed, such as cross sections and computing elevation variations over time. The use of digital photogrammetry by UAVs is particularly reliable: fast acquisition of the images, reconstruction of high-density point clouds, high resolution of final elevation models, as well as flexibility, low cost and accuracy comparable with other available techniques.

Several published studies on beach management have defined sustainable strategies for the maintenance of their recreational capacity. However, coastal geomorphology and evolution have rarely been taken into consideration. To complete these studies, we analyzed the geomorphological characteristics, the users' perception and beach carrying capacity of two coastal stretches. Geomorphological characteristics were obtained from aerial photos and field survey data; beach perception was assessed through questionnaires and interviews while the beach carrying capacity was calculated using two distinct methods. Our results suggest that the physical carrying capacity can be defined using geomorphological analyses, while the effective carrying capacity can be evaluated using the users' perception analysis.

Coastal environments are usually characterized by a brittle balance, especially in terms of sediment transportation. The formation of dunes, as well as their sudden destruction as a result of violent storms, affects this balance in a significant way. Moreover, the growth of vegetation on the top of the dunes strongly influences the consequent growth of the dunes themselves. This work presents the results obtained through a long-term monitoring of a complex dune system by the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Six different surveys were carried out between November 2015 and December 2017 in the littoral of Rosolina Mare (Italy). Aerial photogrammetric data were acquired during flight repetitions by using a DJI Phantom 3 Professional with the camera in a nadiral arrangement. The processing of the captured images consisted of the reconstruction of a three-dimensional model using the Structure-from-Motion (SfM). Each model was framed in the European Terrestrial Reference System (ETRS) using GNSS geodetic receivers in Network Real Time Kinematic (NRTK). Specific data management was necessary due to the vegetation by filtering the dense cloud. This task was performed by both performing a slope detection and a removal of the residual outliers. The final products of this approach were thus represented by Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of the sandy coastal section. In addition, DEMs of Difference (DoD) were also computed for the purpose of monitoring over time and detecting variations. The accuracy assessment of the DEMs was carried out by an elevation comparison through especially GNSS-surveyed points. Relevant cross sections were also extracted and compared. The use of the Structure-from-Motion approach by UAVs finally proved to be both reliable and time-saving thanks to quicker in situ operations for the data acquisition and an accurate reconstruction of high-resolution elevation models. The low cost of the system and its flexibility represent additional strengths, making this technique highly competitive with traditional ones.

The main purpose of the study is to evaluate the economic value related to beach preservation by elicitation of the willingness to pay (WTP). This analysis is based on the results of about 5000 interviews conducted on 41 different Italian beaches. A Contingent Valuation (CV) – a closed-ended dichotomous choice model with a follow-up question - approach is used to elicit WTP. Results of the whole sample indicate that respondents would be willing to pay a contribution of almost 15 €/yr per user in order to preserve the beach. WTP is also calculated for natural, semi-urban and urban beach typologies. The analysis shows that beach typologies affect the WTP and similarities and significant differences of each typology are found according to respondents' sociometric indicators.

Spatial data collected over three years are presented to assess the impacts of a mixed intervention carried out in a low sandy microtidal highly protected beach (Punta Marina, Italy). Coastal erosion started in the 1980s, principally due to reduction of fluvial sediment discharges, wave attack, and both anthropic and natural subsidence. The intervention consisted in a small beach nourishment, shallow feeder berm construction, and the placement of an artificial reef to retain the sand fill. Topo-bathymetrical surveys with Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS, multi-beam surveys, sediment samplings, wave data records, dive inspections and numerical simulations were undertaken over a 3-year monitoring period to analyse the process-response mechanism of this intervention, to assess the main factors affecting the performance of the mixed intervention and the possibility of using fine sediments for nourishment practices. The results reveal a generally positive impact characterised by short-term beach stability that was mostly due to the feeder berm effect. The beach nourishment had a short but direct effect on the beach width, while the feeder berm dissipated wave energy and successively fed the nearshore with eroded sediment. On the other hand, the artificial reef did not retain the sand, but rather induced rip currents that increased eddy circulation and, therefore, promoted the loss of offshore sediment. Settlement and scouring problems were also observed and the structure's failure induced safety problems. The results confirm that a feeder berm operation carried out with fine sediment represents a good solution, although particular attention must be paid to the relationship between sediment grain sizes, volume, and location of the nourishment, as they are the key factors for good performance. Finally, the cross-shore sediment transport represents a critical factor that controls the coastal evolution of beaches bounded by hard structures and assimilated to the littoral cell. Consequently, it should be better integrated within the nourishment design and model setting.

The Goro lagoon has been adversely affected by intense anthropogenic impacts, which have resulted in deterioration of the lagoon's environmental health. An intervention at the lagoon's secondary mouth was done in order to improve the water exchange between the lagoon and the sea and to reclaim the lagoon's floor. This intervention comprised reprofiling the submerged sandspit platform and the tidal channel and nourishing the barrier island. After completion of the intervention, clam production increased by 28% and the lagoon's ecological quality substantially improved. The project utilized some of the eight principles of integrated coastal zone management to reach the best compromise between the socioeconomic needs and preservation of the lagoon. The realization of the successful intervention was first secured in a memorandum of agreement that was drafted by negotiations between the Emilia-Romagna Region Council, the Province of Ferrara, Goro Municipality, and the local fishermen's association. Two...

The main purpose of this paper is to provide a scenic assessment of Italian beaches considering both physical and social aspects useful for defining coastal management strategies. Scenic values were calculated for 25 sites along Italian coastline using of a Coastal Scenic Evaluation System (CSES), a fuzzy logic containing 26 physical/human factors. The sites were categorized into five classes from Class I (top grade scenery) to Class V (poor scenery). Furthermore, a survey through questionnaires on Users' Perception (UP) was performed to obtain social assessment of the beaches and to define the beachgoer's characteristics for each scenic class. Five parameters (beach cleanliness, sea-water, beach width, landscape and crowding) were also combined to obtain a scenic and social analysis of the beaches. Three beaches belonged to Class I, e.g. remote or resort areas with a low impact of human activities and high score of natural parameters. Two Class II beaches were located at remote or rural areas having sand beaches, turquoise water and vigorous vegetation together with a low impact of tourist developments. Classes III, IV and V presented a wide distribution and their lower scores were linked to a poor environmental setting. These beaches were generally located in urban localities. Three aspects that were considered by the beach's users as the most important were beach cleanliness, good sea water and high quality of the services. However, UP assessment showed negative judgments on sea-water and landscape especially for Class IV and V beaches. On the other hand, cleanliness, recreational activities and facilities were well-judged for the Class III, IV and V beaches mainly due to the presence of private beach establishments. Scenic and social analysis of the beaches indicated that beach width was the best parameter both for scenic and social assessment; while crowding factor was a contradictory parameter presenting opposite trends of CSES and UP. Beach cleanliness, sea-water and landscape were depended to scenic Class of the beaches, both for CSES and UP. The excellent scenic values were associated to the environmental settings whereas human parameters usually showed low scores especially for urban beaches due to marine litter and the presence of coastal defense structures like groins and breakwaters. Nevertheless, users frequented both beaches with high and low parameters, due to their habitually frequentation and proximity to the beach. Finally, the results indicate that management strategies are also needed to improve the scenic quality and users' judgement of some beach features.

Fisheries involve an intensive use of European maritime regions according to the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). The recent CFP reform has adopted an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management that is characterised by enhanced regionalisation and multi-annual management plans. It aims to avoid the adverse environmental impacts of fishing activities, which are to be mitigated as far as possible, while the wasteful practice of discarding unwanted catches is to be phased out by 2019, at least for species with minimum landing size. The paper investigates the ability of selected measures, envisaged by the CFP reform through the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF), to sustain and attain the objectives of the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which aims at achieving Good Environmental Status (GES) in marine waters according to an ecosystem-based approach. The analysis uses an expert judgment-based approach and a specially devised questionnaire, where fisheries science and management experts were asked to assess the impact and interaction of selected EMFF measures on GES achievement as defined for the Italian seas. Their responses are discussed and compared with information coming from an extensive literature review. The results of the analysis highlight a general agreement between EMFF actions and GES objectives but also identify some potential conflicts.

Purpose: The study was aimed to provide information on the decontamination of sediments polluted with heavy metals by soil washing and attrition scrubber techniques, assessing the efficiency of a prototype machinery for the improvement of sediment quality dredged in the Ravenna Harbor (Italy). An additional purpose was to compare the heavy metal distribution in sediment fractions collected after these treatments. Materials and methods: Textural and geochemical characteristics were determined in bulk sediments and after the treatments of soil washing and attrition scrubbing by a smaller scale prototype. Statistical analyses were carried out to verify the heavy metal correlations at each step of the treatments. Results and discussion: Textural features after treatments showed moderate separation of sand and silt/clay fractions after soil washing and an increase of the fine fractions after attrition scrubbing. Bulk sediments polluted by arsenic (As) were decontaminated after treatments. Concerning heavy metals, mercury was concentrated in the sand while aluminum, As, cadmium, chrome, iron, manganese, zinc, and vanadium were concentrated in the silt/clay fraction. Bivariate plots showed a significant correlation of heavy metals with sand percentage after soil washing and attrition scrubbing. Conclusions: The results suggest that heavy metal concentrations were significantly affected by grain size distribution. Soil washing resulted in the complete decontamination of As in the sediments. The heavy metal concentration was altered in each step of the treatments according to three different trends. © 2017 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature, The study was co-funded by LIFE SEDI.PORT.SIL. Project (LIFE 09 ENV/IT/000158).

Marine litter is one descriptor in the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). This study provides the first account of an MSFD indicator (Trends in the amount of litter deposited on coastlines) for the north-western Adriatic. Five beaches were sampled in 2015. Plastic dominated in terms of abundance, followed by paper and other groups. The average density was 0.2 litter items m(-2), but at one beach it raised to 0.57 items m(-2). The major categories were cigarette butts, unrecognizable plastic pieces, bottle caps, and others. The majority of marine litter came from land-based sources: shoreline and recreational activities, smoke-related activities and dumping. Sea-based sources contributed for less. The abundance and distribution of litter seemed to be particularly influenced by beach users, reflecting inadequate disposal practices. The solution to these problems involves implementation and enforcement of local educational and management policies.

© 2015. The knowledge of the evolution and conservation of the coastal dunes inside a beach-dune system is fundamental for their protection and for appropriate coastal management. We analyze and classify the coastal frontal dunes present along the Emilia-Romagna according to beach and dune characteristics as well as human activities by using aerial photographs and field measurements. Aeolian sand transport was calculated using a simple predictive equation. The results show that 62 coastal dune systems extending for 31. km are still bordering the 130. km coastline of the Emilia-Romagna region and we observe an alongshore variability of the dune's characteristics. This variability is controlled by the sedimentary budget, beach orientation to the wind-wave direction and human impacts. Four groups of frontal dunes are identified through factorial analysis: two groups are natural dunes, while the other two display characteristics that demonstrate the consequences of human activities. However, the dunes that present the worst conditions are natural dunes corresponding to regressive forms. It also appears that human intervention, when the human impacts have cancelled the original characteristics of the dunes or have obstructed the formation and growth of incipient dunes, have allowed their conservation and protection. We therefore suggest that the dunes presenting the worst conditions, which are often bordered by a narrow beach, need to be protected, considering that the most efficient protection of the dune is provided by a wide, stable beach. This highlights how successful beach nourishment has a positive impact on the foredune's systems favoring their development and conservation.

Data on cross-shore sand transport were obtained during two tidal cycles on a dissipative macrotidal pocket beach in the outer Gironde Estuary (SW France). Sediment samples were collected, using streamer traps, at different elevations above the bed across the surf zone whilst measuring nearshore waves and cross-shore currents on the beach. During the experiment the tidal range reached 3.8 m and the current speeds on the beach were up to 0.5 m s -1 . Wave activity was characterised by a variable significant height, ranging from 0.3 m at low to 0.94 m at high tide, due to the sheltering effect of a nearshore sand bank. The study found that the median grain size of the transported sediment ranged from 0.207 mm to 0.333 mm, decreasing slightly away from the bed, with less than 0.056 mm variation throughout the water column. This vertical distribution was assumed to be related to a near uniform mixing by saturation of turbulence and to large scale vertical eddies under breaking and/or broken waves. The fluxes calculated using the sediment captured in the streamer traps increased exponentially or linearly towards the bottom, whilst some curves had an S-shaped profile. These results confirm the general theory of a decrease in sediment transport rate away from the bed. However, the S-shaped profile may be due to coherent vortex structures which led to strongly irregular patterns. Finally, the sediment fluxes appeared to be higher during the ebb than during the flood tide, indicating a tidal influence on sediment transport.

The Adriatic coast of Punta Marina (Ravenna) is protected by 3-km long low crested breakwater structures (LCSs). Through a 3-years long multidisciplinar study, we assessed the impact of such defensive structures on environmental and biological condition. LCSs create pools where conditions are very different from the surrounding nearshore system. Mechanical disturbance by currents and waves varied greatly in intensity and frequency between seaward and landward sides of the structures. Sedimentary budget was positive at the landward side, but it was due to a gain on the seafloor and not on the emerged beach. The budget at seaward was negative. LCSs determine differences in benthic assemblages, alter the seasonal pattern of communities, and modify seasonal fluctuations of animal assemblages. Landward sheltered areas can be seen as “lagoonal island” surrounded by a “sea of marine habitat”. Differences in ecological quality status, obtained through M-AMBI, are due to the sum of these factors.

Aim of this paper is to develop simple tools for mapping — at regional and local scale — coastal areas exposed at flooding risk. A two-step simplified procedure for coastal management purposes is presented and is applied to Emilia Romagna (Italy), whose low and sandy coast faces the relatively mild Northern Adriatic Sea. The procedure is composed by a 1D conceptual model to determine flooding probability along wide coastal stretches and by a more detailed 2D Level II reliability method, that provides local quantitative statistical maps of inland flooding propagation. Qualitative maps obtained by literature approaches and quantitative results of flooding probability along the littoral show a good agreement. A coastal flood state indicator is proposed to rapidly assess coastal hazard.

This chapter describes the role of the coastal dunes in the context of coastal erosion and presents the possibility of making complex analyses on coastal dunes presence and state using a geodatabase, developed within a national research program. Data and parameters, such as littoral uses, defenses and coastal dune features, have been organized in the same geodatabase structure. This national homogeneous approach makes this project unique for Southern Mediterranean coasts. Applying this approach to data gathered from the Emilia-Romagna and Southern Veneto regions highlighted the complex analyses possibilities and their implication for coastal management and monitoring.

Climate changes and sea-level rise are important issues, especially for deltas such as the Po Delta, Italy. The evolution of the Po Delta shows a succession in space and a superposition in time of complex environmental natural processes. During the last few centuries, anthropogenic action has played a major role. The formation of the Po Delta began about 2000 years ago and has undergone many phases of development. Between 1500 AD and 1600 AD, the Venetian technicians diverted the Po river course. With these interventions, the “Renaissance delta” was cut off from the hydraulic network and the “modern delta” began to form. Until the middle of the 20th century, progradation of the delta was noticeable due to the abundant sediment supply. In the following decades coastal erosion occurred, this was caused by the reduction of the solid supply of the Po, due to dam and barrier construction and to river bed excavation. These and other interventions (e.g. reclamation, methane extractions from superficial ground water table) have deeply modified the physical and ecological characteristics of the Po Delta. The morphological characteristics of the Po Delta make the largest Italian wetland particularly unstable and very fragile when subjected to human pressure. Furthermore, the delta evidences multiple threats that will probably be exacerbated in the following decades by the effects of expected climatic changes. Only the application of careful policies concerning coastal defence, flood mitigation, anthropogenic subsidence reduction and salt wedge intrusion control will allow reduction of the present or predicted negative effects. This paper reviews how natural and human factors have controlled the Po Delta through time and discusses management strategies taking into account the importance of the human factor and the potential effects of climatic changes.

The Sacca di Goro, located in the Regional Parc of the Po Delta, extends over 2600 ha and, is characterised by an intense human pressure. In this context, an intervention, realised at the second mouth of the lagoon (anthropical), aims to improve the exchange of waters between the lagoon and the sea and to reclaim the sea floor of the lagoon in order to improve the production of the fishing activities. The project represents a good compromise between the socio-economical needs of the area and the available technical solutions. It anticipates the re-profilage of the submerged platform of the littoral spit and of the tidal channel but also the nourishment of the barrier-island in order to put in security the lagoonal territories. The finer sediments will be deposited on the lagoon floor.

Goro lagoon was formed during the 19th century in the southern part of the Po Delta. Its origin is related to the growth of a spit system, which progressively occluded the southernmost interdistributary bay from the sea. The development of the spits is due to the morphological prominence of the Po Delta which causes a divergent littoral drift, enhanced by wave refraction over the delta front. During the last century the spit was abandoned, destroyed, and re-constructed several times because of the development of newer spits seawards. Using historical maps and aerial photographs, three different periods are recognised, featuring distinctive spit growth styles: parallel, fan-shaped and branched. The different domains of spit evolution are related to several factors, mainly to the mutual influence of sediment discharge, sand mining along the Po river, wave action over the delta front, human-induced subsidence and direct human interventions along the spits and for flood-control.