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To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2009.12.003 Byline: Santina Chiechio (1), Agata Copani (1)(2), Magda Zammataro (1)(3), Giuseppe Battaglia (4), Robert W. Gereau IV (5), Ferdinando Nicoletti (4)(6) Abstract: Activation of metabotropic glutamate 2 (mGlu2) receptors inhibits pain transmission at the synapses between primary afferent fibers and neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. In addition, mGlu2 receptors are found in peripheral nociceptors, and in pain-regulatory centers of the brain stem and forebrain. mGlu2 receptor agonists produce analgesia in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain, but their use is limited by the development of tolerance. A new therapeutic strategy could be based on the transcriptional regulation of mGlu2 receptors via the acetylation-promoted activation of the p65/RelA transcription factor. 'Epigenetic' drugs that increase mGlu2 receptor expression, including l-acetylcarnitine and inhibitors of histone deacetylases, have a different analgesic profile with no tolerance to the therapeutic effect after repeated dosing. Author Affiliation: (1) Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy (2) I.B.B., CNR-Catania, Italy (3) PhD Program in Neuropharmacology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy (4) I.N.M. Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy (5) Washington University Pain Center and Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA (6) Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy

[beta]-Amyloid protein ([beta]AP) is thought to cause neuronal loss in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Applied to neurons in culture, [beta]AP induces neuronal death and hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, which forms neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in AD brains. Neurons also undergo rapid apoptotic death following reactivation of a mitotic cycle. However, the molecular events that determine the fate of neurons challenged with [beta]AP (apoptotic death, formation of NFTs and survival) are unclear. We discuss a scenario for the pathogenesis of AD. This links [beta]AP-induced changes to the Wnt signaling pathway that promotes proliferation of progenitor cells and directs cells into a neuronal phenotype during brain development. We propose that [beta]AP-mediated facilitation of mitogenic Wnt signaling activates unscheduled mitosis in differentiated neurons. Furthermore, late downregulation of Wnt signaling by [beta]AP might lead to NFT formation. We propose that drugs that both inhibit the cell cycle and rescue Wnt activity could provide novel AD therapeutics.

The determination of cultured neurons through the stimulation of an apoptotic route is initiated by synthetic beta-amyloid peptides (A-beta-Ps). Membrane blebbing, compaction of nuclear chromation, internuclosomal DNA fragmentation and other morphological and biochemical features of apoptosis are observed for neurons treated with A-alpha-Ps. DNA fragmentation is presented and cell death is retarded by aurintricarboxylic acid, an inhibitor of nucleases.

Abstract Background Kisspeptin is a neuropeptide known for its role in the hypothalamic regulation of the reproductive axis. Following the recent description of kisspeptin and its 7-TM receptor, GPR54, in the dorsal root ganglia and dorsal horns of the spinal cord, we examined the role of kisspeptin in the regulation of pain sensitivity in mice. Results Immunofluorescent staining in the mouse skin showed the presence of GPR54 receptors in PGP9.5-positive sensory fibers. Intraplantar injection of kisspeptin (1 or 3 nmol/5 μl) induced a small nocifensive response in naive mice, and lowered thermal pain threshold in the hot plate test. Both intraplantar and intrathecal (0.5 or 1 nmol/3 μl) injection of kisspeptin caused hyperalgesia in the first and second phases of the formalin test, whereas the GPR54 antagonist, p234 (0.1 or 1 nmol), caused a robust analgesia. Intraplantar injection of kisspeptin combined with formalin enhanced TRPV1 phosphorylation at Ser800 at the injection site, and increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the ipsilateral dorsal horn as compared to naive mice and mice treated with formalin alone. Conclusion These data demonstrate for the first time that kisspeptin regulates pain sensitivity in rodents and suggest that peripheral GPR54 receptors could be targeted by novel drugs in the treatment of inflammatory pain.

Abstract Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) couple to the inhibitory G-protein Gi. The group II mGluRs include two subtypes, mGlu2 and mGlu3, and their pharmacological activation produces analgesic effects in inflammatory and neuropathic pain states. However, the specific contribution of each one of the two subtypes has not been clarified due to the lack of selective orthosteric ligands that can discriminate between mGlu2 and mGlu3 subtypes. In this study we used mGlu2 or mGlu3 knock-out mice to dissect the specific role for these two receptors in the endogenous control of inflammatory pain and their specific contribution to the analgesic activity of mixed mGlu2/3 receptor agonists. Our results showed that mGlu2-/- mice display a significantly greater pain response compared to their wild type littermates. Interestingly the increased pain sensitivity in mGlu2-/- mice occurred only in the second phase of the formalin test. No differences were observed in the first phase. In contrast, mGlu3-/- mice did not significantly differ from their wild type littermates in either phase of the formalin test. When systemically injected, a single administration of the mGlu2/3 agonist, LY379268 (3 mg/kg, ip), showed a significant reduction of both phases in wild-type mice and in mGlu3-/- but not in mGlu2-/- mice. However tolerance to the analgesic effect of LY379268 (3 mg/kg, ip) in mGlu3-/- mice developed following 5 consecutive days of injection. Taken together, these results demonstrate that: (i) mGlu2 receptors play a predominant role over mGlu3 receptors in the control of inflammatory pain in mice; (ii) the analgesic activity of mixed mGlu2/3 agonists is entirely mediated by the activation of the mGlu2 subtype and (iii) the development of tolerance to the analgesic effect of mGlu2/3 agonists develops despite the lack of mGlu3 receptors.

Abstract L-acetylcarnitine (LAC), a drug utilized for the treatment of neuropathic pain in humans, has been shown to induce analgesia in rodents by up-regulating the expression of metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 (mGlu2) in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). We now report that LAC-induced upregulation of mGlu2 expression in DRG cultures involves transcriptional activation mediated by nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB). A single application of LAC (250 μM) to DRG cultures induced a transient increase in mGlu2 mRNA, which was observable after 1 hour and was no longer detectable after 1 to 4 days. In contrast, LAC treatment had no effect on mGlu3 mRNA expression. Pharmacological inhibition of NF-κB binding to DNA by caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) (2.5 μg/ml for 30 minutes) reduced the constitutive expression of mGlu2 and mGlu3 mRNA after 1–4 days and reduced the constitutive expression of mGlu2/3 protein at 4 days. This evidence combined with the expression of p65/RelA and c-Rel in DRG neurons indicated that expression of mGlu2 and mGlu3 is endogenously regulated by the NF-κB family of transcription factors. Consistent with this idea, the transient increase in mGlu2 mRNA induced by LAC after 1 hour was completely suppressed by CAPE. Furthermore, LAC induced an increase in the acetylation of p65/RelA, a process that enhances the transcriptional activity of p65/RelA. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that LAC selectively induces the expression of mGlu2 by acting as a donor of acetyl groups, thus enhancing the activity of the NF-κB family of transcription factors. Accordingly, we show that carnitine, which has no effect on pain thresholds, had no effect on p65/RelA acetylation and did not enhance mGlu2 expression. Taken together, these results demonstrate that expression of mGlu2 and mGlu3 mRNA is regulated by the NF-κB transcriptional machinery, and that agents that increase acetylation and activation of NF-κB transcription factors might induce analgesia via upregulation of mGlu2 in DRG neurons.