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The present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a multi-component intervention on cooperative behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In this study, three dyads comprising six boys aged between 4.5 and 7 years with ASD participated, following a randomized multiple baseline design. The participants were asked to construct models together using toy sets. The visual analysis and randomization test (p < 0.01) showed that the intervention increased cooperative behaviors for all six participants, and improvements were maintained after the intervention components were terminated. Four participants in two dyads demonstrated generalization to three new toy sets. For the remaining two participants, the interdependent group contingency was reintroduced in order for them to demonstrate cooperative behaviors.

Previous research shows that infants of parents who are more likely to engage in socially contingent interactions with them tend to have larger vocabularies. An open question is "how" social contingency facilitates vocabulary growth. One possibility is that parents who speak in response to their infants more often produce larger "amount of language input," which accelerates vocabulary growth. Another possibility is that the "simplicity of contingent language input" is especially suitable to support early word learning. A third possibility is that more evidence of the communicative nature of language, achieved through "frequent contingent responses," helps infants build a link between their own words or vocalizations and others' behaviors. This link may lead to a better understanding of the communicative nature of language and further language advances, including vocabulary growth. To distinguish between these hypotheses, we analyzed the relations between parent-infant interactions when infants were 9 months and their vocabulary size at 12 months, using a naturalistic corpus. Our findings show that the frequency of parents' verbal contingent responses predicts receptive vocabulary size at 12 months and this predictive relation is unlikely to be due to the amount of language input or the simplicity of language within socially contingent interactions.

Teachers of young children with moderate to significant support needs may have insufficient training to implement naturalistic instructional practices such as contingent responding. Naturalistic instructional practices are well researched, but limited studies exist on training teachers to use contingent responses to support children increasing child-initiated social participation behaviors during centers. We used a multiple baseline design across four special education teachers to measure the effects of a training package incorporating behavior skills training (BST) and emailed performance feedback (EPF) on increasing teachers' contingent responses to children with limited child-initiated social participation behaviors during centers. Results indicate that BST with a checklist and EPF with graphs increased the four teachers' percentage of contingent responses, and similar levels were observed during maintenance probes. Programming common stimuli during BST resulted in all teachers providing contingent responses to at least one other child in their classroom who had few child-initiated social participation behaviors.

Coronavirus (COVID-19) and the resulting pandemic had widespread implications on the safety of the job tasks teachers are charged with each day. The Center for Disease Control (CDC, 2020) recommends people age 2 years and older should wear masks in public settings; however, for children with disabilities, wearing a mask may be difficult and as such, is not required. Special education teachers and students in particular are at high risk for exposure and contracting COVID-19. Therefore, behavior-analytic strategies that can teach and reinforce appropriate mask-wearing should be evaluated. Given the environment of schools at the time of the study, mask-wearing was a critical skill that children had to learn, and quickly. In this study, students ages 3 to 5-years-old with developmental delays were taught how to properly wear a mask using behavior skills training (BST) until all students were able to put on a mask, or ask for help in doing so, independently. Then, a group contingency was utilized to reinforce the wearing of masks throughout the day in the classroom. Using a changing criterion design, BST and a group contingency was effective in increasing mask wearing for students in the classroom.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of interdependent and independent group contingencies on pre-service teachers' performance on class quizzes that reflected their knowledge of evidence-based practices for students with extensive support needs. In the interdependent condition, the course instructor awarded extra credit points to groups of pre-service teachers who performed at 80% or higher on class quizzes. In the independent condition, the course instructor awarded extra credit points to individual pre-service teachers who met the same performance criterion. Quizzes were based on content from weekly course topics in a special education teacher preparation course focusing on evidence-based practices for students with extensive support needs. Group performance improved across all groups with overall higher performance scores in the interdependent contingency. Pre-service teachers reported both contingencies to be effective and valuable. Implications for practice, limitations, and future research are discussed.

Timeout has been used extensively within schools to address inappropriate behavior in children. In practice, timeout is not a single strategy; rather, it is a compilation of related practices. Some forms of timeout are research-based practices for modifying student behavior. However, others lack research support and frequently are misused, hindering academic performance and risking harm to children. This article reviews the different types of timeout and shares best practices to help teachers use timeout successfully.

Dependent group contingencies offer an efficient way to improve the behavior of an entire group of students, as the performance of only one or a few students needs to be monitored at a time. Prior literature reviews outlined the use of group contingency interventions with children in educational settings; however, these reviews did not exclusively examine dependent group contingencies or the varied conditions under which this intervention has been implemented. The purpose of this review was to classify the settings, populations, outcome measures, intervention components, and procedural parameters of dependent group contingencies across the research literature. We completed electronic database searches between 1970 and 2019 for experimental studies in APA PsycINFO, ERIC, CINAHL, CINHAL Complete, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Education Source, Academic Search Ultimate, and ProQuest and ancestral searches for the exact terms "dependent group contingenc*" OR "dependent group-oriented contingenc*" in the title, abstract, or author-defined keywords. The results of our review are summarized and discussed in terms of directions for future research and implications for practice.

Group contingencies (GCs) are an effective intervention for improving student outcomes in general education school settings but their use in alternative education has historically been limited. However, researchers have recently begun to build a substantial literature base demonstrating the potential of GCs in alternative education. This is notable because these settings are often under-resourced and typically support students who engage in persistent and severe problem behaviors that present substantial challenges to teachers and school staff. Thus, the purpose of this review was to synthesize the evidence for GCs in alternative education to determine their (1) effectiveness, (2) level of empirical support, (3) primary behavior targets, and (4) social validity. Twenty articles were individually coded and indicated that GC interventions are effective, can be considered "promising" evidence-based practice, target a range of student problem behavior, and that teachers and students rate them favorably on social validity metrics.

Classroom management systems (CMS) are class-wide strategies that teachers use to keep students on task, attentive, and academically engaged. This review provides teachers an overview of eight effective and socially valid CMSs that are aligned with school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). The goal is to provide teachers with a guide whereby they can easily implement any of these CMSs in their classrooms. Figures are provided to describe the training procedures, implementation steps, materials needed, data collection, progress monitoring, treatment integrity, variations to the original procedures, and existing supportive research.

In the standard Proportion-Congruent (PC) paradigm, performance is compared between a list containing mostly congruent (MC) stimuli (e.g., the word RED in the color red in the Stroop task; Stroop, 1935) and a list containing mostly incongruent (MI) stimuli (e.g., the word BLUE in red). The PC effect, the finding that the congruency effect (i.e., the latency difference between incongruent and congruent stimuli) is typically larger in an MC list, has been interpreted by the popular conflict-monitoring account (Botvinick et al., 2001) as reflecting a proactive process whereby attention to task-relevant information is adapted based on how frequently conflict from task-irrelevant information arises. Recently, however, alternative accounts of the PC effect have emerged that assume either that the PC effect reflects processes other than proactive conflict adaptation (e.g., stimulus-response contingency learning) or that proactive conflict adaptation is only engaged as a last resort (e.g., when contingency learning cannot be used to minimize interference). We examined these ideas in three experiments in which proactive conflict adaptation could be evaluated independently from processes that are normally confounded with it in the PC paradigm, while still allowing those processes, particularly contingency learning, to be used to minimize interference. Consistent with the conflict-monitoring account of the PC effect, but inconsistent with all the alternative accounts of the PC effect, evidence for proactive conflict adaptation emerged in all experiments. Although multiple processes may be engaged in the PC paradigm, this paradigm remains a valid tool for examining proactive conflict adaptation, its typical use.

The school-age population of students is becoming increasingly more culturally and linguistically diverse. There is mounting recognition that English Learners (EL) represent a unique group of students who have special educational and linguistic needs. This article considered the needs of learners with diverse special needs such as (a) learning and behavior challenges and (b) English Learners identified as students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). We highlighted some potential lessons to be learned from past-to-present efforts to serve students with behavior problems. Selected evidence-based practices were featured that are applicable to learners with special needs, thereby supporting the development of effective inclusive education, especially for students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Despite comprising the majority of labor in higher education in general and writing centers more specifically, contingent workers' voices and experiences have often been overlooked. The contingent voices that have been represented have predominantly been those in director or administrative positions, not the professional tutors who engage in centers' day-to-day consulting. This lack of representation in the literature perpetuates institutional inequities and belies a larger paradox: that contingent workers attempting to ameliorate the precarity of their situation may jeopardize their livelihood. Because contingent workers' identities and roles have historically been ignored and marginalized, few research and publication options are available to them. For this reason, this research used autoethnography, one of the only methodologies available to the contingent professional tutor authors that allowed us agency to share our lived experiences and identities as contingent workers. Three themes emerged from our autoethnographies: vital to but not valued by the institution, working to live but destroying the body, and the illusion of choice. After discussing themes, we call for a continuation of what this work begins, particularly that the field of writing center studies should aim for wider representation of contingent and multi-identitied voices in its literature, conferences, and leadership organizations.

Based on the concept of transformative listening by García (2017) that views listening as a form of decolonial work that must take place in writing centers, the article examines colonial thinking and contingency as toxic preexisting conditions of writing center ecology that hinder our ability to listen to marginalized multilingual voices. Recognizing the commonality between multilingualism and contingency, both as ignored marginalized intersecting identities in the hierarchy of the racialized and corporatized university system, the article describes the complexity of engaging contingent workers in decolonial work and listening. Further, it argues that contingency creates significant barriers to the type of antiracist and decolonial work that García calls for that cultivates transformative listening. The article proposes specific types of collaborative training and partnerships that writing centers should invest in to foster decolonial listening and work while addressing the material constraints faced by contingent faculty and staff.

This article explores the scholarly endeavors upon which writing center directors and coordinators must embark to effectively run their centers. Additionally, the authors explore ways to use their contingent statuses as leverage for either tenure or promotion by linking their scholarly work to departmental and university tenure/promotion requirements.

Purpose: The coronavirus crisis has a huge impact on how we work, learn and even live; the purpose of the study is to bring insights on different approaches to deal with challenging situation like COVID-19. For this reason, the study will facilitate to develop understanding on how to conquer the hurdle of business continuity during challenging times, along with dealing of other challenges like ensuring health and well-being of employees, abiding by the regulation and guidelines, prioritizing the need and handling of different resources (most importantly human). Design/methodology/approach: The data was collected from case study organization during May 2020. For data collection, various internal documents from the case study organization were referred, including various report, circulars, guidelines, office information note. Further, press release and information from website of the case company were also explored. The interview of different group of decision makers (i.e. top management, human resource managers and head at plant sites) was also performed during data collection. Findings: The study has initiated to identify with the approach of the case company to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic and to overcome the challenges posed by unprecedented crisis. Originality/value: The COVID-19 crisis has underlined the significance of the power utilities, as electricity is critical to ensure the smooth functioning of various sectors of the economy. Considering the importance of power sector for economy, this article has taken to investigate the crisis management model of one of India's major power producer companies.

It is important classroom teachers have efficient tools to support student demonstration of expected classroom behaviors as contextually inappropriate behavior can impede learning. This is of particular importance in secondary settings given overreliance on punitive strategies (e.g., suspension). Interdependent group contingencies have been shown to be effective with students and can be efficiently integrated into existing classroom management systems. In this article, we provide a process to support practitioners in developing an interdependent group contingency for their secondary classrooms. Steps and considerations for adolescent learners with diverse characteristics are provided to support teacher implementation.

Groups of children often transition between activity spaces in both academic and recreational settings. In schools, children may be asked to walk as a group between the classroom and spaces such as a cafeteria and playground whereas summer camps similarly use different spaces for separate activities throughout a scheduled day. Interdependent group contingencies have previously addressed school-based transitions (e.g., "timely transitions game"); however, limited research has applied similar interventions to recreational settings such as summer camps. An ABAB design was used to evaluate an interdependent group contingency with visual feedback to increase walking speed between activities across one group of seven 10- to 11-year-old boys at a residential summer camp. The results showed that the intervention was effective to increase the average speed walking, in feet per second, for the group of boys. Further, there were high rates of intervention fidelity, and acceptability among camp counselors.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the most prevalent childhood neurodevelopmental disorder. Arising from a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, along with epigenetic changes during foetal development, ADHD is a lifelong condition that impacts children's academic and social functioning in numerous adverse ways. The treatment of ADHD tends to involve pharmacological (e.g., stimulant medications) or non-pharmaceutical interventions (e.g., family or school-based management), or a combination of both, although many parents and schools are reticent to administer stimulant medications to students. This study examines the effectiveness and implications of nonpharmaceutical interventions for students with ADHD, with the primary aim of improving educators' understanding of non-pharmaceutical based interventions. A search of the relevant literature was conducted via medical and educational journals and research data bases to identify non-pharmaceutical management strategies. These were then examined to identify those with the potential to improving educators understanding and impacting outcomes for students with ADHD. Overall, the findings demonstrated a strong ground for the integration of evidence-based interventions into educational settings to promote academic and social outcomes for students with ADHD.

Drug misuse among people living with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is associated with higher mortality. It is a frequently observed reason for treatment abandonment, with people who misuse drugs showing a 10 to 25 times higher risk of HIV than the general population. The authors conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the efficacy of contingency management (CM) to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy in people living with HIV and substance use disorder (SUD). The inclusion criteria consisted of studies written in English, Italian, Spanish, German, and French; studies conducted with humans; and clinical trials that combined SUD treatment with CM for people living with HIV. Two hundred twenty-two articles were identified, five met all inclusion criteria, and three provided enough data to perform the meta-analysis. We considered treatment adherence by measuring the increase in the CD4 count as our primary outcome. We found a significant increase in treatment adherence in the patient group compared with the control groups during the intervention phase. Positive findings did not persist after the cessation of the incentives. The meta-analysis showed that the intervention improved patient adherence by 2.69 (95% confidence interval: [0.08, 0.51]; p = 0.007) compared with the control group during the intervention period. All short-term CM studies converged on a positive result for adherence to antiretroviral therapy.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is characterized by impulsivity and deficits in executive functioning. Given this, individuals with FASD might particularly benefit from interventions that teach them to manage their own behavior in a more adaptive manner. Using a reversal (ABAB) design, the current study investigated the effects of a function-based self-management intervention package on the academic engagement of a 12-year-old Hispanic female with FASD during her after-school routine. The intervention included implementing antecedent strategies, teaching the participant to self-monitor, and providing contingent reinforcement. Results revealed a functional relationship between the intervention package and the participant's academic engagement. This finding strengthens the small but growing evidence that individuals with FASD can benefit from function-based behavior analytic interventions. Implications for research, practice, and policy are discussed.

Group contingencies are evidence-based behavioral interventions frequently employed in educational settings. Group contingencies are composed of four distinct parameters: (1) a criterion, (2) a reward, (3) target students, and (4) target behaviors. Although it is common practice for teachers to reveal these parameters to students before the intervention begins (i.e. a traditional group contingency), doing so may threaten intervention effectiveness, acceptability and feasibility. One approach that has emerged in the literature to protect against these threats is "randomizing" group contingencies. In randomized group contingencies, some or all parameters of the group contingency are undisclosed to students to safeguard against the aforementioned threats. Given the need for maximally effective, empirically supported behavioral interventions in schools, a practical guide to using randomized group contingencies in classrooms could be useful to educators. Thus, the goal of this paper is threefold: (a) to identify drawbacks of traditional group contingencies that threaten to adversely impact their effectiveness and acceptability in schools, (b) to describe how randomized group contingencies can protect against those threats, and (c) to outline practical advantages of using randomized group contingencies in schools.

Respecting individual differences among students and meeting their unique needs may be one of the greatest challenges faced by teachers. When having a heterogeneous group of students, teachers need to consider a variety of instructional methods. The literature details a large number of teaching strategies supported by research findings, and the purpose of this review is to add to the literature by highlighting important information obtained from research on contingency contracting. This information includes the steps for creating and implementing contingency contracting, types of students with whom it can be used, and types of skills and behaviors that can be targeted. The review results show that contingency contracting is an easy-to-implement strategy that can be effectively used to teach both academic and non-academic skills to students with different characteristics. The results also suggest several practical implications for teachers and several areas of research that need further investigation.

This study evaluated use of the Caught Being Good Game (CBGG) across two adolescent student populations, maintaining a focus on the provision of feedback during the game. The CBGG, a variation of the group contingency intervention the Good Behavior Game (GBG), is a classroom management intervention that involves the provision of points to teams of students who follow class rules. Feedback was manipulated during the game to ascertain whether immediate visual feedback was always necessary. The CBGG was presented with and without immediate visual feedback across phases, using a multiple treatment reversal design. Intervention conditions were counterbalanced across two classrooms of mainstream adolescent students. Data were collected on academically engaged and disruptive behaviors. The CBGG was generally effective in targeting these behaviors in both classrooms, with some differential effects apparent for CBGG versions across classrooms. This provides further support for the use of the CBGG as a positive classroom management technique and as an alternative to the classic GBG. The findings also suggest that teachers may choose whether to use feedback or not during the CBGG, which may save them time and increase buy-in by incorporating an opportunity for some autonomy in game implementation.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of cooperative physical activities on social interactions of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in China. Cooperative physical activities include procedures such as peer selection, peer practice, group task completion, and an interdependent group contingency. The intervention took place during inclusive physical education (PE) classes. Generalization of interactions with peers was evaluated during free play. Three preschool boys (ages 4-5 yrs) with ASD participated in the study, which used a multiple baseline design across the participants. Results indicated that the procedure effectively increased the frequency of appropriate peer interactions for all three children in the PE and free play settings. Although the frequency of inappropriate interactions increased after the intervention in both settings, the proportion of inappropriate interactions relative to appropriate interactions decreased for two children in the PE setting and for all three children in the free play setting.

Taking into account the three key features of scaffolding, namely, contingency, fading and the transfer of responsibility, the present study investigated the role of cognitive scaffolding in speaking and its components (i.e. grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, discourse management, interactive communication). Moreover, the possible moderating effect of learners' proficiency level was examined. Four groups of 30 female Iranian learners of English in a language school participated in this study, two of which were chosen from upper-intermediate learners, while the other two groups included learners studying at pre-intermediate levels. The results of the two-way ANCOVA tests indicated that cognitive scaffolding could foster speaking skill and its components. Besides, it was found that learners' level of proficiency did not mediate the impact of scaffolding on the studied dependent variables. Therefore, both upper-intermediate and pre-intermediate learners equally benefited from cognitive scaffolds. The study offers a number of pedagogical implications which are discussed.

This study investigated the effects of varying opportunities to respond when using a behavior management program with three elementary school students with developmental disabilities in a small group special education setting. These students exhibited both academic and behavioral difficulties. With the implementation of Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT) with low opportunities to respond (OTR), students increased their active engagement and correct responses, as well as decreased their disruptive behaviors. When CW-FIT with high OTR was implemented, students showed an even greater improvement than CW-FIT with low OTR. Higher rates of OTR resulted in higher levels of active engagement and correct responses and decreases in disruptive behavior for all three students. These results indicate that CW-FIT in combination with high OTR can help elementary school teachers manage students' behavior and increase students' correct responding when implemented in a small group special education setting.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a simple contingency contracting intervention on the correct use of punctuation marks in freely produced texts by elementary school children with learning disabilities. This approach can be considered a promising strategy for facilitating the development of academic skills in struggling students. The benefits of contingency contracting were evaluated using an ABC multiple baseline design across three subjects. Results indicated that this technique was very helpful in distinctly boosting the performance of the participants. Applying contingency contracts requires little effort on the part of teachers and can be viewed as a very serviceable tool to support struggling students in their endeavors to produce stories with proper punctuation.

The good behavior game (GBG) is a classroom management intervention that employs a group contingency to support appropriate behavior and reduce classroom disruptions. To date, the majority of GBG research has included participants of typical development in mainstream education classrooms or alternative schools. The current study evaluated the GBG across two classrooms in a special education school in Wales. Children included those with both intellectual and physical disabilities. Although some adaptations were made to accommodate individual student needs, those adjustments were minimal and required little additional effort from teachers. Results were evaluated using a single-case withdrawal design and indicated that the GBG was effective at reducing disruptive and off-task behavior in both classrooms.

Functional communication training, an intervention for challenging behavior rooted in principles of applied behavior analysis, has copious empirical support dating back to the mid-1980s for autistic individuals. Recently, there has been a concerted effort to thin reinforcement delivery during functional communication training using contingency-based delays that, in turn, are designed to enhance practicality and feasibility while not compromising on efficacy. In this synthesis, we meta-analyzed the literature using log response ratio effect sizes to investigate (a) combined and across type effectiveness of contingency-based delays and (b) moderating variables that might impact intervention outcomes. Findings showed that contingency-based delays were effective for autistic individuals (log response ratio = -2.17; 95% CI = (-2.76, -1.58)) and most effective when the contingency incorporated positive reinforcement (log response ratio = -2.30; 95% CI = (-2.83, -1.78)). In addition, delay procedures that included differential reinforcement of alternative behavior were overall more effective (log response ratio = -2.13; 95% CI = (-2.72, -1.55)) than those that involved differential reinforcement of other behavior (log response ratio = -1.24; 95% CI = (-3.84, 1.37)). Noteworthy moderating variables found to impact contingency-based delay efficacy included the intervention dosage and the topography of behavior. We discuss these findings and highlight directions where additional empirical research is warranted to improve our understanding about contingency-based delays for autistic individuals.

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are at greater risk for reading difficulties, and for many children, the promotion of reading fluency is an appropriate intervention goal. However, few studies have specifically examined the use of repeated reading (RR) with young children with ASD. The present study used a RR intervention in conjunction with rewards contingent on performance and error correction with three young children with ASD to promote reading fluency on first and second grade level reading passages. Findings from this sample support other pilot studies extending variations of RR to use with children with ASD. Future work should rigorously evaluate the components of fluency interventions that promote short and long-term reading outcomes in children with ASD.

An ABAB design was used to analyze the effects of positive peer reporting plus a randomized dependent group contingency (PPR + DGC). This intervention package was implemented across three classrooms in an alternative school setting for students diagnosed with emotional and behavioral disorders. The DGC consisted of the teacher randomly choosing a student to watch throughout the 45-min class period to determine if that student was following classroom rules. If so, the entire class earned a randomly selected reward at the end of class period. The intervention package also included two opportunities, one at the start and one at the end of class, for students to engage in positive reporting sessions. Results indicated an increase in engagement and a decrease in off-task and disruptive behavior while the intervention was implemented. The effects on positive and negative peer statements were ultimately minimal throughout all classrooms and phases. Social validity data indicated that teachers found the intervention package to be easy to include in their daily routine and stated that they would continue using this intervention package in the future. Discussion focuses on implications for practice and the need for additional research examining the effects of positive peer reports on student behavior.

While the COVID-19 pandemic brought distance learning to a much wider audience, leading to contingency planning and becoming an unexpected solution for some students, it has also uncovered significant systemic problems and given some a negative outlook on distance learning. Due to the quick but not necessarily effective transition to distance learning, systemic problems such as lack of resources for students living in rural communities and the growing digital divide for minority low-income households were exposed. Additionally, due to the time constraints, teachers were unable to receive targeted training and support for online instruction. The threat of future pandemics and economic disturbances highlights the need for effective distance education to prepare for the next global health emergency and bridge the longstanding socioeconomic and educational gap. Thankfully, because of COVID-19 many school districts have developed permanent virtual options, creating an opportunity for families to continue with distance learning. It also presents an unexpected solution for those who face challenges such as social anxiety, who are interested in homeschooling support, or students with chronic illnesses.

The necessity of promoting physical activity in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has been emphasized for decades. One of the barriers to participate in physical activity for individuals with ASD is limited interest and motivation. Therefore, understanding the motivation to exercise in this population is important. The objective was to determine the effect of using contingent reinforcement in the form of watching a preferred DVD to increase duration of time pedalling on a stationary bicycle within their predetermined target heart rate zone (THRZ) in children with ASD. Using a crossover design, seven participants (11 2.7 years) who were diagnosed with ASD were randomly assigned to either Group A or B. Time spent pedalling on a bicycle within the THRZ was analysed using a linear mixed-effect model with Bonferroni adjustments. The results showed that the DVD intervention motivated children with ASD to exercise for more than 10 minutes in moderate to vigorous physical activity compared to when they were exercising without watching a DVD. This result is significant as number of studies have revealed that 10 minutes of exercise could bring improvements in activities of daily living such as behaviors and academic performance in school.

The finding that differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is efficacious at 80% integrity when continuous reinforcement is programmed for alternative responding may have contributed to a perception that integrity at 80% or above is acceptable. However, research also suggests that other interventions (e.g., noncontingent reinforcement) may not remain effective at 80% integrity. The conditions under which 80% integrity is acceptable for common behavioral interventions remains unclear. Therefore, we conducted two human-operant studies to evaluate effects of 80% integrity for interventions with contingent or noncontingent intermittent reinforcement schedules. During Experiment 1, we compared noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and DRA when implemented with 80% integrity. During Experiment 2, we compared 2 variations of DRA, which included either a ratio or interval schedule to reinforce alternative behavior. Results replicated previous research showing that DRA with a FR-1 schedule programmed for alternative responding resulted in consistent target response suppression, even when integrity was reduced to 80%. In contrast, neither NCR nor interval-based DRA were consistently effective when implemented at 80% integrity. These results demonstrate that 80% integrity is not a uniformly acceptable minimal level of integrity.

Online instruction is a trend that has been around for a while within academia. However, the pandemic exposed the notable difference between teaching an online course and doing so effectively. During the 2021-- 2022 academic year, faculty from various colleges and departments across the Winston-Salem State University community participated in the Excellence in Online Instruction Initiative. This initiative focused on credentialing faculty on evidence-based teaching practices for online instruction from the Association of College and University Educators (ACUE). Fifty-two faculty completed the course to become ACUE credentialed educators. Faculty completed surveys to identify their confidence in utilizing new teaching practices. Survey results include statistically significant increases in confidence in all course competencies. With a national course completion average of 83% for ACUE course participants, Winston-Salem State University excelled with a 98.9% course completion average. The impact of this experience and the efficacy of evidence-based teaching practices has ignited a renewed excitement for teaching excellence.

Class-wide academic performance can be increased by overlaying existing instructional and classroom management procedures with supplemental interdependent group-oriented bonus rewards. The bonus reward strategies may be particularly effective for under-motivated, low-performing students. When applying supplemental interdependent group-oriented bonus rewards, rewards are delivered to all members of a class for meeting a group-oriented performance criterion. A description of supplemental interdependent group-oriented bonus rewards is provided, followed by reasons for using unknown, randomly-selected rewards and criteria for earning rewards. Guidelines for establishing a pool of possible rewards and criteria are provided that are designed to allow teachers to develop their own supplemental interdependent group-oriented bonus rewards.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often display impairments in communication, such as limited echoic behavior, few vocal-verbal responses, and a lack of functional communication. One potential way to foster the acquisition of vocal responses in individuals with disabilities is by conditioning vocalizations as reinforcers. Conditioning procedures include stimulus-stimulus pairing, response-contingent pairing (RCP), operant discrimination training, and observational conditioning (OC). However, previous research has not evaluated whether OC can be used to condition vocalizations as reinforcers. The current study assessed whether two conditioning procedures, RCP and OC, were effective in conditioning vocalizations as a reinforcer and also evaluated their effect on the rate of vocalizations. Participants included three children with ASD, ages 5-10 years old. During the conditioning phase, rates of vocalizations during the RCP and OC conditions and a control condition were compared within an adapted alternating-treatments design. Reinforcer assessments were completed in a multielement design, pre- and postconditioning, to assess whether the target vocalizations acquired reinforcing properties. A conditioning effect and an increase in the rate of vocalizations were observed for two of the three participants; however, the conditioning effect was minor for one participant. Overall, the results of this study indicate both the RCP and OC procedures may be beneficial in increasing vocalizations for some children and could be incorporated into clinical programs and further explored in future research.

We examined an intervention package using peer modeling, systematic prompting, and contingent reinforcement to increase the frequency and complexity of board game play and social behaviors in young children with disabilities. Four children with or at risk for disabilities participated with their typically developing peers. Results indicated a strong functional relation given the magnitude of change across conditions and participants and robust study rigor. Minor individual adaptations were used for two of the four participants. Overall, the study extends the research on board game play interventions with young children by demonstrating the effectiveness of an intervention that was successful for a diverse sample of preschool children with or at risk for disabilities and their peers.

Children with disabilities often have deficits in imitation skills, particularly in imitating peers. Imitation is considered a behavioral cusp--which, once learned, allows a child to access additional and previously unavailable learning opportunities. In the current study, researchers examined the efficacy of contingent reinforcement delivered within a small group play context on the unprompted peer imitation (UPI) behaviors of three children with disabilities. UPI behaviors increased when contingent reinforcement was provided, and maintained with a thinned schedule of reinforcement. However, pretend play and social interactions did not increase concurrently with peer imitation.

The current study examined the effects of the Class-wide Function-related Intervention Teams (CW-FIT), a class-wide group contingency, on the on-task behavior of all students in a first grade class and the on-task and disruptive behavior of three target students within that class who were nominated by their teacher through a behavioral screening. The classroom teacher used a systematic instruction model (i.e., direct instruction, model, and role-play) to teach three behavioral skills, including (a) gaining the teacher's attention appropriately, (b) following directions, and (c) ignoring inappropriate peer behavior. These skills were reinforced through use of an interdependent group contingency, the CW-FIT program, incorporating class teams, awarding points, and rewards for meeting point goals. The effects of the intervention on target student and class behavior were evaluated in a reversal design. Results showed the CW-FIT program was effective in increasing the on-task behavior of the class and target students. A reduction in disruptive behavior was also seen for each target student during intervention. Students and teacher reported a high degree of satisfaction with the intervention.

The daily report card (DRC) is a commonly employed behavioral intervention for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in schools. Much of the support for the DRC comes from single-case studies, which have traditionally received less attention than group studies. This lack of attention to single-case studies results in an incomplete review of the literature for this intervention. The present study utilized meta-analytic techniques to examine the DRC as used in single-case studies, with moderating variables explored through hierarchical linear modeling. Fourteen articles, including data on 40 single-subject cases, were included in the analyses. Effect sizes generally illustrated improvement with use of the DRC, with some differences across methods of effect size estimation. Study quality and class type moderated outcomes. Overall, the present study supports the use of the DRC with students who have ADHD, and it provides guidance for using single-case studies in meta-analyses of intervention effects.

Individual contingency management systems have been used successfully to improve behaviors in school settings--including preschools--but often come with associated challenges in time and personnel management. Group contingencies, in the form of independent, interdependent, and dependent contingencies, have been used in preschools to address these challenges. Although current reviews exist on the positive effects of these interventions with older students, none exist to date on the effects on preschool children. The purpose of this review was to synthesize the research on the use of group contingencies in preschool classrooms. Clear trends emerged across studies regarding characteristics of participants, type of contingency used, intervention components, and rewards.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the patterns of scaffolding contingency in teaching and learning mathematics carried out by three teachers. Contingency patterns are obtained by examining the transcription from video recording of conversation fragments between teachers and students during the provision of scaffolding. The contingency patterns are drawn in three strategies: diagnostic strategy, intervention strategy, and checking diagnosis. The result shows that the three teachers expressed different interaction contingencies in their scaffolding activities: contingent dominant, noncontingent dominant, and pseudo-contingent. It is also found that the learning interaction performed by experienced teachers tends to be contingent dominant compared to novice teachers.