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This study applied a risk assessment technique to the steam reforming process in hydrogen production facilities to generate baseline data for preparing safety protocols in related workplaces. To this end, consequence analysis (CA) was conducted using DNV-PHAST v.8.9., focusing on the reforming process, which operates at the highest temperature and pressure among related processes. This study predicted jet fire damage resulting from the total failure of a 65 mm syngas pipe at the rear end of the reformer, with a projected flame length of up to 23.6 m based on a radiant heat of 5 kW/m2. As per the assessment, a vapor cloud explosion (VCE) caused damage of up to 42.6 m at an overpressure of 0.07 bar (1 psi), while a flash fire had an impact range of approximately 12.7 m based on hydrogen's LFL (lower flammable limit). This quantitative risk assessment of the general steam reforming process provides valuable basic data for the design and operation of related facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to evaluate the process safety aspects of four types of mixed fluid cascade (MFC) routes commonly used in the LNG liquefaction process. The investigation was conducted based on the conceptual design data using the Comprehensive Inherent Safety Index (CISI) followed by the consequence modeling. The CISI approach provided the path to identify each process vulnerabilities as well as attaining the total safety score for each. According to the outcomes, the two-cycle MFC-2 was the best option while the three cycle MFC-4 that is a latest developed technology with a total score of 351.282 placed in second standings. From another point of view the main common contributor of process incidents were recognized as multi-stream heat exchanger and compressors. Potential major accident hazard modeling associated with the vulnerabilities introduced by CISI analysis also revealed a credible jet fire subsequent to loss of containment from MFC-4 process can introduce a 21.8 m radius for the fire zone boundary. The outcomes of this research would be beneficial for the technology developers as well as engineering designers of LNG facilities since more complicated process safety challenges with end up in extensive requirement for layers of protection.

Prevailing safety guidance for the transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is based on the guidance for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) transportation; therefore, the safety considerations for LNG and LPG transport must be compared. A literature review was performed to understand and compare the development of research into LNG and LPG, their transportation, and the safety considerations involved. The literature review revealed key hazard differences, as well as the lack of transport safety studies compared to the vast field of research for both substances. With the scientific background established, the chemical and physical properties of LNG and LPG are compared, then the hazards related to their properties. Finally, with knowledge of the properties and hazards of both LNG and LPG, the available risk analyses are discussed. LNG transport has undergone minimal accident frequency analysis compared to LPG transport. Most of these frequency analyses have been for marine transport and contain high uncertainties in the determined probabilities due to sparse available data. It is also apparent that consequence analysis studies have not been adequately explored; however, modelling software provides consequence understanding via simulation. LNG transportation lacks the knowledge base from research and practice that LPG transportation has, and due to limited incident history, the lack of research into boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) potential of LNG and the lack of understanding of the severity, likelihood, and repeated explosions of rapid phase transition limit understanding of the risk of LNG transportation. Potential future research is recommended to address these vital knowledge gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses some accidents and uses consequence analysis as well as layer of protection analysis (LOPA) and bow‐tie to establish the best approach for safely controlling the process to avoid loss of containment due to overfilling. Four accidents and their aftermaths are examined, considering current investigations. Consequence analysis was used with 12 products to demonstrate how to determine the level of protection of the systems to reduce the likelihood of containment loss due to overflow. Finally, LOPA and bow‐tie were used to ensure that the systems have adequate protection at an acceptable level of risk tolerance and will be correctly maintained throughout their life cycle. The analyses indicated that an independent layer of protection with safety integrity level 2 was required to achieve the risk tolerance requirement of <10−4/year, which is a known and widely accepted frequency when an accident has the potential to result in a fatality. Furthermore, a study of degradation factors and controls was performed to enhance the reliability of all the components that interfere with the frequency of the top event. This will improve process safety throughout the system's lifecycle, and the results will also be input for safeguards audits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Consequence analysis modeling approach refers to the risk analysis method that quantitatively evaluates the effect of physical damage to be caused by flammable chemicals in the chemical process industry on the plant equipment, structures in and around the plant, the environment and living things after the loss of integrity scenarios. This study minimizes uncertainties such as release cross-section, flammable gas cloud mass, congestion geometry and DDT (deflagration to detonation transition) assessment, fuel reactivity involved in the traditional approach discussed in the literature and presents a conservative systematic procedure. This consequence analysis modelling based on near-miss LPG dispersion that have happened approximately 15 minutes in July 2017 at an LPG filling facility. The damage parameters caused by explosive LPG cloud mass in the defined scenarios were analyzed in ALOHA software. The overpressure outputs were transfered to GIS-based Marplot software and were estimated damage on sensitive locations caused by explosion overpressure through probit functions. The probit equations used in this study for building damage estimations put all buildings in the same category. The different reinforcement and physical properties of the buildings make it difficult to reach accurate estimates for possible structural damage. In addition, this study is a pre-assessment on the dimensions of the explosion risk due to the uncertainties and assumptions contained in the method. At the decision-making stage for the facility investment plans should make more comprehensive analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Wildfires have caused significant damage in Chile, with critical infrastructure being vulnerable to extreme wildfires. Aim: This work describes a methodology for estimating wildfire risk that was applied to an electrical substation in the wildland–urban interface (WUI) of Valparaíso, Chile. Methods: Wildfire risk is defined as the product between the probability of a wildfire reaching infrastructure at the WUI and its consequences or impacts. The former is determined with event trees combined with modelled burn probability. Wildfire consequence is considered as the ignition probability of a proxy fuel within the substation, as a function of the incident heat flux using a probit expression derived from experimental data. The heat flux is estimated using modelled fire intensity and geometry and a corresponding view factor from an assumed solid flame. Key results: The probability of normal and extreme fires reaching the WUI is of the order of 10−4 and 10−6 events/year, respectively. Total wildfire risk is of the order of 10−5 to 10−4 events/year Conclusions: This methodology offers a comprehensive interpretation of wildfire risk that considers both wildfire likelihood and consequences. Implications: The methodology is an interesting tool for quantitatively assessing wildfire risk of critical infrastructure and risk mitigation measures. A methodology offering a comprehensive interpretation of wildfire risk considering both wildfire likelihood and asset vulnerability is proposed. The former is estimated with an event tree, while the latter is considered as the ignition probability of a polymeric fuel within a critical infrastructure. Wildfire risk is ~10−4 events/year. This article belongs to the Collection ICFFR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogen fuel cells are an essential energy alternative in reducing emissions that cause climate change. However, hydrogen is not an innocent chemical, and it is crucial to ensure safety measures. The aim of the current study was to contribute to the relevant safety research by determining the possible accident effects of hydrogen storage tanks in a fuel cell production facility. ALOHA (Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres) Software and the B-S-T (Baker-Strehlow-Tang) method were used to model the accident effects. The first case study for Türkiye was performed by taking a fuel cell production facility in Ankara. Considering past accident data, it was assumed that there was a leak of 4.26 cm in diameter in the hydrogen storage tank (D = 4.03 m, L = 10.58 m, V = 140 L) operated at 345 atm in the example facility. Meteorological data for June for the province represented the conditions where hydrogen would show a more significant dispersion. Two different scenarios, no fire and jet fire due to release, were modeled with ALOHA Software. For the release of hydrogen with no fire, the toxic threat zone of the vapor cloud, the flammable threat zone of the vapor cloud, and the explosion threat zone of the vapor cloud were determined. Thermal radiation threat zones were determined in case of a jet fire. The largest impact distances were obtained for the flammable threat zone of the vapor cloud (red threat zone = 301 m, > 24,000 ppm, 60% LEL: Lower Explosive Limit). This was followed by the explosion threat zone of the vapor cloud with an impact distance of 207 m (> 1 psi). It was determined that the windows of buildings can be broken by the explosion effect (1 psi) at a distance of approximately 200 m using the B-S-T method. Software and correlation results were found to be compatible with each other. Although there were no direct effects on human health, it was shown that injuries due to glass breakage may occur.

Aim: This study focuses on the consequence analysis and safety assessment of an ethylene oxide (EO) unit in a petrochemical complex. This study evaluates the potential consequences of process accidents in the tankage, tank truck loading, and cylinder filling areas of an EO unit. Methods: The analysis was conducted using DNV’s PHAST software (2023), which models and quantifies the consequences of chemical releases by considering various factors such as material characteristics, storage tanks, weather conditions, and the number of people at risk. This study considers scenarios such as fire, flammable and toxic gas dispersion, and vapor cloud explosion. Results: The results provide insights into the safety measures and precautions required in different areas of the petrochemical complex. The analysis of hazard zones allows for the prioritization of protective measures and ongoing monitoring of operational hazards. Conclusion: This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the consequences and risks associated with the use of the EO unit in a petrochemical complex.

Hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) operating at high pressures pose a higher risk of leakage than conventional gas stations. Therefore, in this study, a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) was conducted using DNV-GL SAFETI v.8.9. The impact of the shutoff valve was quantitatively assessed, and step-by-step mitigation was applied to propose the minimum installation requirements for the valve necessary to achieve broadly acceptable risk levels. The QRA includes sequence analysis (CA), individual risk (IR), and societal risk (SR), with accident scenarios consisting of catastrophic ruptures and three leak scenarios. The research results indicate that the application of a dual shutoff valve system resulted in an IR of 7.48 × 10−5, effectively controlling the risk below the as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP) criteria of the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). The SR was analyzed based on the ALARP criteria in the Netherlands, and the application of the dual shutoff valve system effectively controlled the risk below the ALARP criteria. Consequently, this study suggests that applying a dual shutoff valve system with a mitigation value exceeding 1.21 × 10−2 can successfully mitigate the risk of urban hydrogen refueling stations to broadly acceptable levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the scope of the process safety management system, process hazard analysis studies are carried out in order to protect human, environment and facility investments in facilities where hazardous chemicals are handled or stored. The safeguards and independent protection layers (IPL) evaluated in the process hazard analysis studies are expected to reduce the probability and/or severity of accident scenarios. Within the scope of the study, it was aimed to evaluate the effect of the presence of protection layers on the frequency and severity of undesired events in a sample facility where 1,3-Butadiene chemical was stored. First, event tree analysis (ETA) was performed for a specified initiating event (critical event). In the event tree analysis, frequency values were determined by using the ignition probability calculation module for potential flash fire, jet fire, explosion and toxic release accident scenarios. In order to determine the severity of accident scenarios, overpressure, thermal radiation and toxic exposure values were calculated within the scope of impact analysis. Correlations and software were used in the impact analysis. It was observed as a result of calculations that the frequencies of thermal radiation, explosion and toxic release decreased due to the direct effect of the barrier and independent protection layers on the event frequency. Since the detection time efficiency of the protection layers in the evaluated process was low and the amount of chemicals released into the atmosphere did not change, there was no change in the impact distances of the accident scenarios, except for the explosion effects. As a result, it has been determined that the effects of protection layers and safety instrumented functions in the processes should not only be evaluated on the frequency of the undesired event, but also the effects of accident scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative energy carriers such as hydrogen and ammonia play an important role for the energy transition to reduce global CO 2 emissions substantially. These substances will be produced and used in much larger amounts in the near future to replace hydrocarbons that are widely used nowadays. Therefore, consequences and risks of bulk storage, handling and transport of these materials must be addressed accurately. Because these substances have a low molecular weight, pressurised or liquefied gases released by accident may undergo a transition from heavy gas to rising plume behaviour during dispersion depending on the storage, release and atmospheric conditions, as well as surface effects such as heat transfer. The plume lift-off, plume rise, and the entrainment of ambient air play a significant role in the effect distances and the volume of a flammable or toxic cloud. The consequence modelling software tool EFFECTS contains different dispersion models for neutral and heavy gas dispersion, which are based on a 1-D discretisation method. Since the code for these dispersion models was developed in the past with the focus on heavy or neutral gas conditions, the simulation of buoyant plumes so far was limited. The aim of the present research was to improve the accuracy of the EFFECTS dispersion model for strongly buoyant plumes and predict the transition from the momentum dominated to the buoyant regime correctly. The paper describes the theoretical background of the extensions implemented in the dispersion model in EFFECTS. These extensions are aimed at improving the modelling approach for lighter than air plumes. The validation of the models incorporating these improvements has been performed and is based on results compared against experimental data including instantaneous and continuous releases, jets and low momentum releases from the ground for different materials including helium and hydrogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main goals of the shipping industry is to decarbonize the fuels used in maritime transportation. Ammonia is thought to be a potential alternative for hydrogen storage in the future, allowing for CO2-free energy systems. Ammonia's beneficial characteristics with regard to hydrogen storage include its high volumetric hydrogen density, low storage pressure, and long-term stability. However, ammonia is characterized by toxicity, flammability, and corrosiveness, making safety a challenge compared to other alternative fuels. In specific circumstances, leakage from ammonia bunkering can cause risks, dispersion, and unsafe areas due to its flammability and toxicity. Based on an analysis of 118 research papers and 50 regulations and guidelines, this review report evaluates various aspects of the hazards associated with the ammonia bunkering processes, considering both current and future implications. This report also includes the latest advancements and potential developments related to the safety of ammonia as a marine fuel. Several related regulations and standards for ammonia supply systems are discussed. This paper examines experiments and numerical investigations conducted using different methods of ammonia bunkering, such as terminal-to-ship, ship-to-ship, and truck-to-ship transfers. This review shows that the toxicity of ammonia is more relevant to the topics of vapor cloud dispersion and ammonia bunkering than its flammability. Finally, the main challenges and recommendations for the implementation of ammonia bunkering and further development of ammonia as a marine fuel are proposed. This review suggests new directions to overcome the disadvantages and research gaps associated with the leakage of ammonia during bunkering periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leakage of hazardous chemical gases during storage or transport via roadways is a common type of accident that threatens human life. This study built a typical residential building model in rural areas of southern China based on Building Information Model technology. The model was then simplified and employed as a target building to simulate the hazardous gas dispersion around it after a leak accident by means of Computational Fluid Dynamic methods. A dose-response model was combined with a probit function analysis to quantitatively identify the exposure risks for different scenarios. The impacts of source location and ventilation path on the dispersion characteristics were analyzed through comparisons of indoor concentration distributions. In addition, the study also quantified the relationship between individual mortality risk and the source intensity by employing H2S as a source of toxic substances. If the source strength was increased by 2.5 times for the same ventilation path, the corresponding mortality rates can improve from 0.1 to 99%. The findings provide effective information about rapid consequence evaluation after accidental leakage of hazardous chemical gas and could be helpful in proposing effective emergency measures to minimize the exposure risk in roadside buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A ship collision accident may pose a threat to human lives, the environment and material assets. A damaged ship can suffer from the loss of ship stability, reduced global structural strength, and the loss of the integrity of internal tanks carrying polluting liquids. This study presents a methodology as a framework that can be used to analyze the related consequences of ship-ship collision events using simulations and evaluations. The methodology includes nonlinear finite element analyses of the collision event, a METOCEAN data analysis module, damage stability simulations, analyses of the damaged ship's ultimate strength and structural integrity, oil spill drift simulations, and finally, an evaluation of the three abovementioned consequences. A case study with a chemical tanker subjected to collision demonstrates the methodology. The collision event was assumed to occur in the Kattegat area (between Sweden and Denmark) at a ship route intersection with high ship traffic density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This literature review looks at the various types of approaches to industrial storage tank fires and evaluates how quantitative consequence analysis with thermal modeling may aid in the development of industrial site fire preplans and emergency response planning guidelines. Emergency response planners may employ the use of thermal contours on plot plans generated by available consequence modeling software. Such performance‐based approaches can effectively take into account the associated sociotechnical factors and site‐specific hazards. With these approaches, the planners can identify appropriate preventative actions and responses, such as the activation of cooling on adjacent equipment, as well as establishing safe approach/muster point distances from hazardous sources of thermal heat stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Background The COVID-19 pandemic has brought substantial challenges for current practices in treating hereditary neuromuscular disorders (hNMDs). However, this infection has not been the only concern for these patients. Social distancing has compromised multidisciplinary assistance and physical activity, and has brought about several mental health issues. We presented a follow-up on 363 patients with hNMDs at a Brazilian tertiary center during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Objective We aimed to show the frequency and severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection among hNMD patients and to demonstrate the effects of the pandemic on life habits, disease progression and multidisciplinary supportive care status. Methods Three hundred and sixty-three patients (58% male and 42% female) were followed for three months through three teleconsultations during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Results There were decreases in the numbers of patients who underwent physical, respiratory and speech therapies. For several patients, their appetite (33%) and sleep habits (25%) changed. Physical exercises and therapies were interrupted for most of the patients. They reported new onset/worsening of fatigue (17%), pain (17%), contractions (14%) and scoliosis (7%). Irritability and sleep, weight and appetite changes, and especially diminished appetite and weight loss, were more frequent in the group that reported disease worsening. There was a low COVID-19 contamination rate (0.8%), and all infected patients had a mild presentation. Conclusion The isolation by itself was protective from a COVID-19 infection perspective. However, this isolation might also trigger a complex scenario with life habit changes that are associated with an unfavorable course for the NMD.

The primary objective of this study is to examine various fire scenarios occurring within storage tanks containing three standard refinery-produced fuels: gasoline, kerosene, and crude oil. Additionally, the aim is to analyze the emissions of CO and CO₂ pollutants, the temperature of hot gases, and the radiation emissions resulting from the combustion of fuel tanks, considering real-scale tanks with diameters of 25, 50, and 75 m. This research introduces innovation by concurrently comparing the abovementioned hazards under varying environmental conditions, considering the presence or absence of wind as a critical factor influencing hazard propagation. In addition, the radiation effect is identified as the most significant hazard near the storage tanks. Furthermore, wind can intensify radiation levels in the direction of its movement, with a noticeable impact. Increasing wind speed from zero to 15 m/s results in a 1.5-fold increase in the safety distance. Without wind, CO and CO 2 , along with high gas temperatures, do not pose destructive threats. However, wind causes these hazards to extend closer to the Earth's surface. Under wind speeds of 15 m/s, these hazards reach a height of approximately 5 m above the ground. Notably, gasoline fuel is recognized as more perilous. • Analyzing of highly hazardous scenarios: radiation, temperature, and the emission of CO and CO2 in fuel storage tank farms. • Evaluating the influence of wind on tank fire hazards and comparing it to windless conditions. • Providing safe distances by considering the fuel bed diameter and fuels such as Iranian crude oil, kerosene, and gasoline. • Offering a numerical correlation for estimating the safe distance based on tank diameter and ambient speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The various social, political, environmental, and economical mega-trends together with the rapid rise of digitalization are shaping cities worldwide including the way that citizens and products move within the urban environment. New mobility services are popping up which are showing the path toward more on-demand and personalized mobility patterns. The transformation of the urban mobility environment though constitutes a great challenge for policy-makers, as little is known about the impact of these trends on the city’s current mobility environment while the assessment of the future state of a mobility system can be considered a quite complex process taken its multi-parametric and multi-dimensional nature. This paper aims to simplify this process by presenting a coherent multi-actor consequence analysis framework as a tool for assessing future mobility scenarios which was developed in the framework of the H2020 SPROUT. This paper presents in detail the main components of this framework together with the list of key performance indicators used for assessing the performance in terms of sustainability of future mobility scenarios as well as indicative results from its use by the city of Padua.

Interfacing the output of severe accident analysis with the input of radiological consequence analysis is an important and mandatory procedure at the beginning of Level 3 PSA. Such interfacing between the severe accident analysis code MELCOR and MACCS, one of the most commonly used consequence analysis codes, is relatively tractable since they share the same chemical groups, and the related interfacing software, MelMACCS, has already been developed. However, the linking between MAAP, another frequently used code for severe accident analyses, and MACCS has difficulties because MAAP employs a different chemical grouping method than MACCS historically did. More specifically, MAAP groups by chemical compound, while MACCS groups by chemical element. An appropriate interfacing method between MAAP and MACCS has therefore long been requested by users. This study suggests a way of extracting relevant information from MAAP results and providing proper source term information to MACCS by an appropriate treatment. Various parameters are covered in terms of magnitude and manner of release in this study, and special treatment is made for a bypass scenario. It is expected that the suggested approach will provide an important contribution as a guide to interface MAAP and MACCS when performing radiological consequence analyses.

The growing demand for liquefied natural gas (LNG)-fueled ships necessitates the establishment of an LNG bunkering facility. Ship-to-ship (STS) is one of the most practical forms of LNG bunkering systems. Although there are benefits to the LNG bunkering of ships, risk and safety issues are a concern due to the volatile cargo. Ship collision could result in accidental LNG release. The purpose of this study was to build LNG leakage scenarios, establish critical zones based on gas concentrations, and estimate the temperature reduction in a bunkering ship's structure resulting from the use of cryogenic fluid. The condition of a target ship's structure, both intact and when damaged due to collision, was considered. Leak size, leak direction, leak position, release rate, and reservoir pressure were included as leak parameters, and environmental parameters, such as the wind direction, wind speed, and ambient temperature, were also included. The release duration was set based on the shutdown duration of the emergency shutdown valve (ESD). A total of 72 leakage scenarios were generated for the main CFD analysis. Convergence tests were conducted to determine the appropriate grid and iteration numbers for a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. The gas dispersion characteristics and the cryogenic flow impact on the LNG bunkering ship's structure are discussed through a parametric study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria is the property of Thieme Medical Publishing Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The various social, political, environmental, and economical mega-trends together with the rapid rise of digitalization are shaping cities worldwide including the way that citizens and products move within the urban environment. New mobility services are popping up which are showing the path toward more on-demand and personalized mobility patterns. The transformation of the urban mobility environment though constitutes a great challenge for policy-makers, as little is known about the impact of these trends on the city's current mobility environment while the assessment of the future state of a mobility system can be considered a quite complex process taken its multi-parametric and multi-dimensional nature. This paper aims to simplify this process by presenting a coherent multi-actor consequence analysis framework as a tool for assessing future mobility scenarios which was developed in the framework of the H2020 SPROUT. This paper presents in detail the main components of this framework together with the list of key performance indicators used for assessing the performance in terms of sustainability of future mobility scenarios as well as indicative results from its use by the city of Padua. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Objective: To compare the consequences of psychoactive substance use among users of mental health services in Brazil and Portugal. Method: Cross-sectional, comparative, quantitative study, carried out with 362 users of two specialized treatment services in the cities of São Paulo (n = 200) and Lisbon (n = 162). Data collected in 2019 through the application of the Substance Addiction Consequences scale. A descriptive analysis and ordinary least squares and logistic regressions were performed. Results: All dimensions assessed by the scale were more severe for Brazilian users, with a difference for the physical domain and cognitive skills (p < 0.01). Brazilian participants were more likely to consume cocaine (p < 0.01) and have psychosis (p = 0.02) and Portuguese participants to have hepatitis (p < 0.01), personality disorders (p < 0.01), use benzodiazepines (p < 0.01) and tobacco (p < 0.01), and receive pharmacological support (p < 0.01). Conclusion: It was found that Brazilian users have more serious consequences related to substance use, and Portuguese users have more comorbidities and exposure to risky consumption. It emerges that Portuguese responses minimize the consequences severity.

Copyright of Vatten is the property of Foreningen Vatten and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract Oil spill-induced vapor cloud explosions in a confined space can cause catastrophic consequences. In this work, investigation was conducted on the catastrophic pipeline leak, oil spill, and the resulting vapor cloud explosion accident occurring in China in 2013 by modeling analysis, field surveys, and numerical simulations. The total amount of the spilled oil was up to 2044.4 m3 due to improper disposal. The long residence time of the oil remaining in a confined space permitted the formation of explosive mixtures and caused the vapor cloud explosion. A numerical model was developed to estimate the consequence of the explosion based on volatilization testing results. The results show that the death-leading zone and the glass-breaking zone could be 18 m and 92 m, respectively, which are consistent with the field investigation. The severity of the explosion is related to the amount of the oil spill, properties of oil, and volatilization time. It is recommended that a comprehensive risk assessment be conducted to analyze the possible consequences upon oil spilling into a confined space. Prompt collection and ventilation measures should be taken immediately after the spill occurs to reduce the time for oil volatilization and prevent the mixture from reaching its explosive limit.

Background and Objective: One of the main steps to increase the level of safety and plan for reactions in the active or developing units is to assess the risks, such as releasing chemicals in the environment. The present study aimed to model the leakage consequences from gas condensate reservoirs for developing an emergency response plan. Materials and Methods: In order to investigate gas condensate distribution from reservoirs and related consequences in a gas refinery, PHAST software was used in this study. Using process data, landing maps, and meteorological information, the modeling was performed for four scenarios, including a jet fire, pool fire, flash fire, and vapor cloud explosion. In each scenario, the dimensions of the incident and extent of the damage were investigated, and the obtained results were utilized in identifying hazardous areas in the refinery, proper locating of safe areas, and improving routes used in emergencies. Results: In the 650 reservoirs, which are the most dangerous unit equipment, the four scenarios can lead to deadly consequences. In this regard, the incident of vapor cloud explosion and after that pool fire had the most consequences. Accordingly, up to 490 m, the reservoirs, including the control center and some routes, will be affected by possible incidents. Conclusion: According to the regions wind rose and modeling, some changes should be made in the emergency plan, including the fact that the two access routes should be situated more distant from the reservoirs and they should not be placed in the direction of the wind. In addition, two muster points should be located more distant from the reservoirs, and the control center should be fortified against fire and explosion.

The growing demand for liquefied natural gas (LNG)-fueled ships necessitates the establishment of an LNG bunkering facility. Ship-to-ship (STS) is one of the most practical forms of LNG bunkering systems. Although there are benefits to the LNG bunkering of ships, risk and safety issues are a concern due to the volatile cargo. Ship collision could result in accidental LNG release. The purpose of this study was to build LNG leakage scenarios, establish critical zones based on gas concentrations, and estimate the temperature reduction in a bunkering ship’s structure resulting from the use of cryogenic fluid. The condition of a target ship’s structure, both intact and when damaged due to collision, was considered. Leak size, leak direction, leak position, release rate, and reservoir pressure were included as leak parameters, and environmental parameters, such as the wind direction, wind speed, and ambient temperature, were also included. The release duration was set based on the shutdown duration of the emergency shutdown valve (ESD). A total of 72 leakage scenarios were generated for the main CFD analysis. Convergence tests were conducted to determine the appropriate grid and iteration numbers for a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. The gas dispersion characteristics and the cryogenic flow impact on the LNG bunkering ship’s structure are discussed through a parametric study.

Recently, quantitative risk assessment (QRA) has been widely used as a decision-making tool in the offshore industry. This study focused on analyzing dropped objects in the design of a modern offshore platform. A modified QRA procedure was developed for assessing production module protection against accidental external loads. Frequency and consequence analyses were performed using the developed QRA procedure. An exceedance curve was plotted, and a high-risk management item was derived through this process. In particular, simulations and experiments were used to verify the difference between the potential and impact energies according to drop orientation. When the object dropped in a specific orientation, the impact energy was confirmed to be up to 4.7 times greater than the potential energy. To reflect the QRA results in structural design, the proposed procedure should be used to calculate the maximum impact energy. The proposed procedure provides a step-by-step guide to assess the damage capacity of a production area as well as the damage frequency and consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To elucidate the dispersion and explosion characteristics of an unconfined detonable aerosol, experiments were performed with propylene oxide, JP-10 and petroleum ether. Unmanned air vehicles, a high-speed camera, infrared thermal imaging and a pressure-measurement system were used to record the experimental data. The results showed that the mean value of the fractal dimension of fuel aerosol edges decreased with increasing liquid viscosity. The initial diameter of the explosion cavity (the zone within the inner interface of the liquid shell) decreased with the increase of viscosity. An initiator charge of 500 g TNT was enough to induce a detonation in the aerosols (pure propylene oxide, 30 % petroleum ether and 70 % propylene oxide mixtures). After the aerosol was ignited, a secondary explosion phenomenon was observed and its characteristics were discussed. Furthermore, consequence analysis to determine the damage to humans and buildings were quantitatively assessed by using PROBIT equations. The relative-safety radii for humans and buildings were also obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A general guideline to improve operational discipline is required. Operational discipline can be improved with simple things such as floor level meeting (FLM), job cycle check (JCC), risk assessment (RA), daily safety audit (DSA), consequence analysis (CA), mechanical integrity (MI), incident investigation (II), management of change (MOC), behavior observation (BO), pre‐start up safety reviews (PSSR), process hazard analysis (PHA), job risk assessment (JRA), quantitative risk assessment (QRA), and process safety management (PSM) implementation. This article presents risks identified from floor level meetings, steps for job cycle check and risk sensitivity and procedure for daily safety audit and behavior observation audit. Consequence analysis, pre‐start up safety review and why tree analysis are discussed for improving operational discipline. Inclusion of consequence analysis in work instructions is discussed. Procedure for accident investigation is elaborated by investigating trainee unit shift engineer (USE) burning injury accident and why tree diagram is constructed and findings and recommendations are provided. PHA techniques (HAZOP, Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) methodology is presented to enhance operational discipline. This article is especially for those industries which are located in countries where PSM implementation is not mandatory and they are lacking in operational discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrical energy storage (EES) systems consisting of multiple process components and containing intensive amounts of energy present inherent hazards coupled with high operational risks. Although the thermal hazards of batteries have aroused widespread attention, the safety issues of emerging large scale EES technologies persist. This study aims to begin to fill this gap by examining the hazards of typical 100 MWh or more EES systems which are used for grid applications. These systems include compressed and liquid air energy storage, CO 2 energy storage, thermal storage in concentrating solar power plants, and Power-to-Gas. Hazard assessments are performed using a hybrid method to consider and evaluate the EES systems' potential hazards from three novel aspects: storage, operability, and connectivity. Results reveal that for a similar energy storage capacity, cryogenic liquid systems have the least severe accident consequences while thermal energy storage using synthetic oil exhibits the largest. Concerning the operations in many cases, extreme operating conditions, complicated heat exchanger networks involving multiple flammable working fluids, and system operation intermittency present the major challenges to the safer operation of EES systems. Lastly, these systems themselves form one of many components of the power supply, each of which needs to accommodate fluctuations in supply and demand but also should be prevented from transmitting hazards to each other. Considering both engineering and administrative controls, this paper concludes with a discussion on the four grouped strategies from inherent to procedural for the elimination and mitigation of the identified hazards. Representative solutions and research perspectives including inherently safer design, operation uncertainty management, resilience analysis, energy barriers design, and life cycle safety assessment are suggested for the overall safety enhancement of industrial EES systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the use of hazardous chemicals has been continuously increasing. Therefore, the international trade volume is growing and chemical accidents have increased. Nowadays, the safety awareness of the public has increased. As a result, the management and supervision of hazardous chemicals have been strengthened. However, the port policy of Korea has focused on increasing the volume of cargo through facility development. Thus, the port management of hazardous chemicals has been relatively neglected. For national economic growth and society, the port management of hazardous chemicals should be considered to efficiently ensure safety and economic growth. Therefore, this study assumed scenarios where hazardous materials were moved in a dangerous container, not only on appropriate wharfs but also in ports that were close to a big city. The BTX substances were selected among the toxic chemicals with large import and export volumes, and the risk distance and damage effects were predicted using various risk assessment programs. It is expected that this could be used to improve a port safety management system and could be utilized to determine the safety distance in case of an accident.

North Algeria is very subject landslide Geo-phenomena, which causes each year very serious infrastructure damages and human lives. In order to estimate these damages and assess the effects of landslides on current development plans or future development programs, the analysis of the consequences seems like a very important criterion. Numerous approaches developed over the last decade, which have encountered difficulties in application, due to the lack of data on historical damage. This article presents a quantitative study of the potential consequences, based on GIS mapping in the Tizi ouzou area. The proposed methodology comports two principal stages ; the first identifies in a statistical way (Multiple correspondence analysis MCA) the correlations between the categories of exposed elements (land use, infrastructure, human) and the second phase consists in evaluating and mapping the damage potential of these elements using the technology of geographical information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the years, the term "facility siting" has had many meanings, has been conducted for varying, but related purposes, and has been performed with ever‐increasing degrees of sophistication following the advancement in computing capabilities. This paper describes the history of facility siting in terms of the industry events, resulting regulations and standards, improvements in modeling techniques, and expansion of computing power that have driven the changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facilities that handle hazardous materials above threshold quantities are required to assess the impacts due to postulated accidents involving releases of these materials, and to ensure that people are adequately protected from the associated fire, explosion, and toxic hazards. An analysis of these hazards can be based solely on consequences from maximum credible events or can incorporate the likelihood of the events to characterize results in terms of risk. The methods of performing these analyses may vary, but, regardless of the specific techniques used, fundamental principles of thoroughness and defensibility should be achieved. This study describes best practices and basic requirements for consequence‐based and risk‐based facility siting studies (FSSs), also commonly referred to as quantitative risk analyses, consistent with industry guidance. The fundamental objective of a consequence‐based or risk‐based FSS is to ensure that the consequences or risks posed by facility operations are minimized to the extent practical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical accidents are going more frequent with increasing industrialization and increased measured handling of large quantities of chemicals. They can cause major life and property losses and environmental impact if proper safety considerations are neglected. This emphasizes the importance of the consequence analysis of the risks involved with the chemical plants. The purpose of this study is to analyze the consequence of major accidents of a case study in a spherical butane tank in the port of Bandar Imam (Iran). In this work, three possible failure scenarios were studied including (a) leakage from the loading line, (b) leakage from the tank manhole (outlet line), (c) rupture in the spherical butane tank in order to model the incidents. The detailed analysis of the results provided essential and important recommendations that should be taken into account including minimum safe distance from the rupture center for different types of fire. The established recommendations of this work can be used for an effective preparedness of people for relevant risks and could be employed to increase the awareness of possible risks and major accidents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oil spill-induced vapor cloud explosions in a confined space can cause catastrophic consequences. In this work, investigation was conducted on the catastrophic pipeline leak, oil spill, and the resulting vapor cloud explosion accident occurring in China in 2013 by modeling analysis, field surveys, and numerical simulations. The total amount of the spilled oil was up to 2044.4 m3 due to improper disposal. The long residence time of the oil remaining in a confined space permitted the formation of explosive mixtures and caused the vapor cloud explosion. A numerical model was developed to estimate the consequence of the explosion based on volatilization testing results. The results show that the death-leading zone and the glass-breaking zone could be 18 m and 92 m, respectively, which are consistent with the field investigation. The severity of the explosion is related to the amount of the oil spill, properties of oil, and volatilization time. It is recommended that a comprehensive risk assessment be conducted to analyze the possible consequences upon oil spilling into a confined space. Prompt collection and ventilation measures should be taken immediately after the spill occurs to reduce the time for oil volatilization and prevent the mixture from reaching its explosive limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims: Accidents happened as a result of LPG leakage emphasizes the importance of the consequence analysis of fire and explosion in LPG storage tanks. The purpose of this study is to analysis the consequences of fire and explosion in a cylindrical LPG storage tank in an oil and gas industry. Method: In this analytical study, four possible failure scenarios including 1) rupture in the cylindrical LPG tank 2) leakage from the loading line 3) leakage from the tank manhole and 4) undesirable opening of the safety valve, and their fire and explosion consequences were simulated by PHAST software. Then the results were compared with existing standards Results: The scenario of tank rupture leads to a radiation flux 37.5 kw/m2 affect a radius of 290 m from tank location that can cause major life and property losses. As the result of a flash fire due to the tanker rupture, there is a possibility of life-threatening to a radius of 520 m. An explosion (resulting from the tank rupture) with blast wave of 0.2 bar affect a radius of 2092 m that can cause the life and property losses. The scenario of leakage from the tank manhole leads to jet fire, explosion and flash fire. Also, the jet fire and flash fire will follow by the scenarios of leakage from the loading and undesirable opening of the safety valve. Conclusion: With attention to severity the tank rupture and the likelihood of occurrence of the domino effect, it is recommended to substitute the horizontal cylindrical LPG tanks by the spherical ones. Also, an emergency response plan should be established based on the result of this study. Keywords: Consequence Analysis, Fire, Explosion, LPG Tank, PHAST

Recently, quantitative risk assessment (QRA) has been widely used as a decision-making tool in the offshore industry. This study focused on analyzing dropped objects in the design of a modern offshore platform. A modified QRA procedure was developed for assessing production module protection against accidental external loads. Frequency and consequence analyses were performed using the developed QRA procedure. An exceedance curve was plotted, and a high-risk management item was derived through this process. In particular, simulations and experiments were used to verify the difference between the potential and impact energies according to drop orientation. When the object dropped in a specific orientation, the impact energy was confirmed to be up to 4.7 times greater than the potential energy. To reflect the QRA results in structural design, the proposed procedure should be used to calculate the maximum impact energy. The proposed procedure provides a step-by-step guide to assess the damage capacity of a production area as well as the damage frequency and consequences.

Several model validation studies on gas dispersion scenarios have been conducted in the past on the Reynolds averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) based eddy viscosity turbulence models. However, many of these studies are based on a limited number of validation cases involving simple geometries and conformal mesh. In the area of safety engineering, the application of RANS-based CFD for consequence analysis is a widely used methodology. Best practice on use of CFD in this context, as the document developed in the COST Action 732 (Franke et al., 2007), focus primarily on validation and verification aspects as well as simulation setup and definition of input data. Guidelines on turbulence models also exist, among which the ERCOFTAC CFD Best Practice Guidelines, and the works of Meroney et al. (2016) and Mcbride et al. (2001). However, there is no unique recommended model for dispersion simulations. The objective of the present study is to assess the three well-known RANS eddy viscosity models, namely, Standard k-ε, Re-Normalization group (RNG) k-ε and Realizable k-ε, in a representative range of gas dispersion cases by comparing models" behavior with experimental data. The current validation cases include dense CO[sub 2] release in a cross-wind, impinging hydrogen jet, and a dense chlorine jet release in an industrial site. All the simulations were conducted using the commercial CFD code FLACS. Turbulence models were assessed based on the ability to reproduce experimental concentrations, required computational-time and numerical-stability. Overall, Standard k-ε and RNG k-ε models were found to be reasonably good in all cases. Nevertheless, Realizable k-ε model shows promise in yielding good results in cases involving complex-geometries and dense-phase gas-releases. These results may also be explained with the interplay between the Porosity/Distributed Resistance subgrid models used in FLACS and turbulence models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Empirical correlations were applied for prediction of time to boilover and its consequences. • A CFD model were used for simulation of boilover consequences. • Empirical models and the CFD model were compared to 1 m diameter crude oil boilover experiment. • A case study concerning crude oil tank boilover with a diameter of 78 m was performed. • The CFD model predictions were in good agreement with crude oil experiment and real accident results. In the present study, empirical correlations were applied to predict the time to boilover and its consequences. Next, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was applied for the simulation of boilover consequences based on the resulting incident radiative heat flux. Empirical correlations, and the Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS) were compared with a crude oil boilover experiment carried out in a 1 m diameter pan (small-scale). FDS predictions were consistent with experimental results. A case study concerning the boilover accident in Milford Haven with a 78 m diameter tank (large-scale) was performed with the CFD model and empirical correlations. A comparison of the simulation results and accident data demonstrated that FDS was able to predict the radiation heat flux of the boilover in the target area in agreement with real accident data. The time to boilover correlations gave results in agreement with experimental and real accident data while consequence prediction correlations exaggerated the radiation heat flux and fireball height and diameter. It is concluded that an integrated approach including empirical correlations for the prediction of time to boilover and FDS for the prediction of the radiation heat flux in the target area, provide realistic results for prediction of time to boilover and its consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objective: One of the main steps to increase the level of safety and plan for reactions in the active or developing units is to assess the risks, such as releasing chemicals in the environment. The present study aimed to model the leakage consequences from gas condensate reservoirs for developing an emergency response plan. Materials and Methods: In order to investigate gas condensate distribution from reservoirs and related consequences in a gas refinery, PHAST software was used in this study. Using process data, landing maps, and meteorological information, the modeling was performed for four scenarios, including a jet fire, pool fire, flash fire, and vapor cloud explosion. In each scenario, the dimensions of the incident and extent of the damage were investigated, and the obtained results were utilized in identifying hazardous areas in the refinery, proper locating of safe areas, and improving routes used in emergencies. Results: In the 650 reservoirs, which are the most dangerous unit equipment, the four scenarios can lead to deadly consequences. In this regard, the incident of vapor cloud explosion and after that pool fire had the most consequences. Accordingly, up to 490 m, the reservoirs, including the control center and some routes, will be affected by possible incidents. Conclusion: According to the regions wind rose and modeling, some changes should be made in the emergency plan, including the fact that the two access routes should be situated more distant from the reservoirs and they should not be placed in the direction of the wind. In addition, two muster points should be located more distant from the reservoirs, and the control center should be fortified against fire and explosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is used to simulate tank and dike fires in a tank farm. • FDS is compared to experimental data of 1 m crude oil pool fire and 30 m and 50 m diameter kerosene pool fires. • A good agreement was found between the results of three experiments and the FDS predictions. • Potential for secondary fire events in nearby storage tanks is evaluated based on the resulting incident radiative heat flux. In this study, the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is adopted to simulate tank and dike pool fires in a tank farm. These simulations are performed in order to evaluate the potential for secondary fire events in nearby storage tanks based on the resulting incident radiative heat flux. As a precursor to the tank farm fire scenario case studies, the model is compared with experimental data of 1 m crude oil pool fire and 30 m and 50 m diameter kerosene pool fires. These comparisons are made to validate the modeling approach ahead of the application of the modeling to a problem of practical interest. The results of the FDS are consistent with experimental data. The FDS results indicate that the studied dike pool fire has the potential of triggering the domino effects in the tank farm, but not so true in the case of the tank fire. Quantitative results obtained by FDS modeling can be used in quantitative risk assessment of a tank farm and determination of safe inter-tank separation distances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]