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The Kuranda Treefrog occurs in tropical north-east Australia and is listed as Critically Endangered due to its small distribution and population size, with observed declines due to drought and human-associated impacts to habitat. Field surveys identified marked population declines in the mid-2000s, culminating in very low abundance at most sites in 2005 and 2006, followed by limited recovery. Here, samples from before (2001–2004) and after (2007–2009) this decline were analysed using 7132 neutral genome-wide SNPs to assess genetic connectivity among breeding sites, genetic erosion, and effective population size. We found a high level of genetic connectivity among breeding sites, but also structuring between the population at the eastern end of the distribution (Jumrum Creek) versus all other sites. Despite finding no detectable sign of genetic erosion between the two times periods, we observed a marked decrease in effective population size (Ne), from 1720 individuals pre-decline to 818 post-decline. This mirrors the decline detected in the field census data, but the magnitude of the decline suggested by the genetic data is greater. We conclude that the current effective population size for the Kuranda Treefrog remains around 800 adults, split equally between Jumrum Creek and all other sites combined. The Jumrum Creek habitat requires formal protection. Connectivity among all other sites must be maintained and improved through continued replanting of rainforest, and it is imperative that impacts to stream flow and water quality are carefully managed to maintain or increase population sizes and prevent genetic erosion.

The diversification processes underlying why Amazonia hosts the most species-rich vertebrate fauna on earth remain poorly understood. We studied the spatio-temporal diversification of a tree frog clade distributed throughout Amazonia (Anura: Hylidae: Osteocephalus, Tepuihyla, and Dryaderces) and tested the hypothesis that Miocene mega wetlands located in western and central Amazonia impacted connectivity among major biogeographic areas during extensive periods. We assessed the group’s diversity through DNA-based (16S rRNA) species delimitation to identify Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) from 557 individuals. We then selected one terminal for each OTU (n = 50) and assembled a mitogenomic matrix (~14,100 bp; complete for 17 terminals) to reconstruct a Bayesian, time-calibrated phylogeny encompassing nearly all described species. Ancestral area reconstruction indicates that each genus was restricted to one of the major Amazonian biogeographic areas (western Amazonia, Guiana Shield and Brazilian Shield, respectively) between ~10 and 20 Mya, suggesting that they diverged and diversified in isolation during this period around the Pebas mega wetland. After 10 Mya and the transition to the modern configuration of the Amazon River watershed, most speciation within each genus continued to occur within each area. In Osteocephalus, only three species expanded widely across Amazonia (Osteocephalus was probably driven by climatic stability, habitat diversity and the acquisition of new reproductive modes along the Andean foothills and western Amazonia. Our findings add evidence to the importance of major hydrological changes during the Miocene on biotic diversification in Amazonia.

A population of white-footed dunnarts (Sminthopsis leucopus) occurs in the Wet Tropics bioregion of tropical north Queensland, Australia separated by about 1800 km from conspecifics in temperate New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania. We conducted targeted surveys for S. leucopus in north-east Queensland and obtained new records, including the first reported capture of the species in Queensland in 18 years. We assessed the genetic and morphological divergence of the north Queensland population against New South Wales, Victorian and Tasmanian S. leucopus, in conjunction with distribution and habitat differences, to assess whether this isolate should be described as a distinct taxon. Sequencing of the mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene revealed genetic divergence estimates of 2.3–2.8% and 4.3–4.8% between the north Queensland population and S. l. ferruginifrons (Victoria) and S. l. leucopus (Tasmania) respectively. Based on genetic divergence, cranial morphology, differences in habitat, and geographical isolation, we describe the north Queensland population as a new subspecies of Sminthopsis leucopus. We suggest a conservation classification of Endangered given its small distribution, apparent low density, tropical upland location and potential threats, especially related to climate change.

The Australian continent’s size and isolation make it an ideal place for studying the accumulation and evolution of biodiversity. Long separated from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, most of Australia’s plants and animals are unique and endemic, including the continent’s frogs. Australian frogs comprise a remarkable ecological and morphological diversity categorized into a small number of distantly related radiations. We present a phylogenomic hypothesis based on an exon-capture dataset that spans the main clades of Australian myobatrachoid, pelodryadid hyloid, and microhylid frogs. Our time-calibrated phylogenomic-scale phylogeny identifies great disparity in the relative ages of these groups which vary from Gondwanan relics to recent immigrants from Asia and include arguably the continent’s oldest living vertebrate radiation. This age stratification provides insight into the colonization of, and diversification on, the Australian continent through deep time, during periods of dramatic climatic and community changes. Contemporary Australian frog diversity highlights the adaptive capacity of anurans, particularly in response to heat and aridity, and explains why they are one of the continent’s most visible faunas.

The environment presents challenges to the transmission and detection of animal signalling systems, resulting in selective pressures that can drive signal divergence amongst populations in disparate environments. For chemical signals, climate is a potentially important selective force because factors such as temperature and moisture influence the persistence and detection of chemicals. We investigated an Australian lizard radiation (Heteronotia) to explore relationships between a sexually dimorphic chemical signalling trait (epidermal pore secretions) and two key climate variables: temperature and precipitation. We reconstructed the phylogeny of Heteronotia with exon capture phylogenomics, estimated phylogenetic signal in amongst-lineage chemical variation and assessed how chemical composition relates to temperature and precipitation using multivariate phylogenetic regressions. High estimates of phylogenetic signal indicate that the composition of epidermal pore secretions varies amongst lineages in a manner consistent with Brownian motion, although there are deviations to this, with stark divergences coinciding with two phylogenetic splits. Accounting for phylogenetic non-independence, we found that amongst-lineage chemical variation is associated with geographic variation in precipitation but not temperature. This contrasts somewhat with previous lizard studies, which have generally found an association between temperature and chemical composition. Our results suggest that geographic variation in precipitation can affect the evolution of chemical signalling traits, possibly influencing patterns of divergence amongst lineages and species.

Aim: After environmental disasters, species with large population losses may need urgent protection to prevent extinction and support recovery. Following the 2019–2020 Australian megafires, we estimated population losses and recovery in fire-affected fauna, to inform conservation status assessments and management. Location: Temperate and subtropical Australia. Time period: 2019–2030 and beyond. Major taxa: Australian terrestrial and freshwater vertebrates; one invertebrate group. Methods: From > 1,050 fire-affected taxa, we selected 173 whose distributions substantially overlapped the fire extent. We estimated the proportion of each taxon’s distribution affected by fires, using fire severity and aquatic impact mapping, and new distribution mapping. Using expert elicitation informed by evidence of responses to previous wildfires, we estimated local population responses to fires of varying severity. We combined the spatial and elicitation data to estimate overall population loss and recovery trajectories, and thus indicate potential eligibility for listing as threatened, or uplisting, under Australian legislation. Results: We estimate that the 2019–2020 Australian megafires caused, or contributed to, population declines that make 70–82 taxa eligible for listing as threatened; and another 21–27 taxa eligible for uplisting. If so-listed, this represents a 22–26% increase in Australian statutory lists of threatened terrestrial and freshwater vertebrates and spiny crayfish, and uplisting for 8–10% of threatened taxa. Such changes would cause an abrupt worsening of underlying trajectories in vertebrates, as measured by Red List Indices. We predict that 54–88% of 173 assessed taxa will not recover to pre-fire population size within 10 years/three generations. Main conclusions: We suggest the 2019–2020 Australian megafires have worsened the conservation prospects for many species. Of the 91 taxa recommended for listing/uplisting consideration, 84 are now under formal review through national processes. Improving predictions about taxon vulnerability with empirical data on population responses, reducing the likelihood of future catastrophic events and mitigating their impacts on biodiversity, are critical.

Invasive ants are among the world’s most damaging invasive species, often directly or indirectly affecting native fauna. Insecticidal baits are the main method for suppressing or eradicating invasive ant populations, but their use must be considered against potential for unintended effects on native organisms. The invasive yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracillipes) is widespread in the tropics, particularly on islands, where they have displaced a range of invertebrates. Effects of this ant on vertebrates, and in continental ecosystems generally, are less studied. We investigated the effects of yellow crazy ants and bait application on rainforest skinks and their invertebrate prey. We compared skink and skink prey abundance across four replicated rainforest site categories: high and low yellow crazy ant sites had both been baited but differed in yellow crazy ant activity; control sites had never had yellow crazy ants or been baited; and buffer sites had never had yellow crazy ants but had been baited. We recorded significantly lower abundance of two small skink species (Lygisaurus laevis and Saproscincus tetradactylus) in high yellow crazy ant sites compared to all other site categories. The differences persisted even after baiting reduced yellow crazy ant activity by 97.8% ± 0.04% (mean ± SD). A larger rainforest skink species (Carlia rubrigularis) was not negatively affected by yellow crazy ant invasion. Skink prey abundance was significantly lower in high yellow crazy ant sites compared to control sites and low yellow crazy ant sites, but not compared to buffer sites. These differences did not persist following baiting. We found no evidence that baiting negatively affects skinks or their invertebrate prey. Our data suggest that yellow crazy ants, but not the bait used to treat them, pose a direct threat to small rainforest skinks.

A recent targeted reptile survey of Scawfell Island, in the South Cumberland Group, revealed a species of Phyllurus gecko that could not be morphologically assigned to any described species. Here I describe this as a new species, Phyllurus fimbriatus sp. nov., based on differences in a number of morphometric and scalation traits from congeners. Phyllurus fimbriatus sp. nov. is restricted to deeply-piled boulder habitat under rainforest canopy on Scawfell Island, approximately 50 km offshore from Mackay in mid-east Queensland. A survey in rocky, rainforest habitat on nearby Carlisle Island failed to find the species, and other nearby islands appear to lack sufficiently deep rock outcropping to support the species. Phyllurus fimbriatus sp. nov. is known from two small patches of habitat on Scawfell Island, but it is common within these, and is likely to be found in other suitable habitat patches on the island. Based on assessment of imagery, the total area of habitat occupied may be < 1 km2. The island is protected within South Cumberland National Park, but fire encroachment from adjacent dry sclerophyll habitats, climate change, competition from introduced Asian House Geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron, 1836), and poaching are potential threats.

Population isolation and concomitant genetic divergence, resulting in strong phylogeographical structure, is a core aspect of speciation initiation. If and how speciation then proceeds and ultimately completes depends on multiple factors that mediate reproductive isolation, including divergence in genomes, ecology and mating traits. Here we explored these multiple dimensions in two young (Plio-Pleistocene) species complexes of gekkonid lizards (Heteronotia) from the Kimberley-Victoria River regions of tropical Australia. Using mitochondrial DNA screening and exon capture phylogenomics, we show that the rock-restricted Heteronotia planiceps exhibits exceptional fine-scale phylogeographical structure compared to the codistributed habitat generalist Heteronotia binoei. This indicates pervasive population isolation and persistence in the rock-specialist, and thus a high rate of speciation initiation across this geographically complex region, with levels of genomic divergence spanning the "grey zone" of speciation. Proximal lineages of H. planiceps were often separated by different rock substrates, suggesting a potential role for ecological isolation; however, phylogenetic incongruence and historical introgression were inferred between one such pair. Ecomorphological divergence among lineages within both H. planiceps and H. binoei was limited, except that limestone-restricted lineages of H. planiceps tended to be larger than rock-generalists. By contrast, among-lineage divergence in the chemical composition of epidermal pore secretions (putative mating trait) exceeded ecomorphology in both complexes, but with less trait overlap among lineages in H. planiceps. This system-particularly the rock-specialist H. planiceps-highlights the role of multidimensional divergence during incipient speciation, with divergence in genomes, ecomorphology and chemical signals all at play at very fine spatial scales.

Australian lizards are a diverse group distributed across the continent and inhabiting a wide range of environments. Together, they exhibit a remarkable diversity of reproductive morphologies, physiologies, and behaviours that is broadly representative of vertebrates in general. Many reproductive traits exhibited by Australian lizards have evolved independently in multiple lizard lineages, including sociality, complex signalling and mating systems, viviparity, and temperature-dependent sex determination. Australian lizards are thus outstanding model organisms for testing hypotheses about how reproductive traits function and evolve, and they provide an important basis of comparison with other animals that exhibit similar traits. We review how research on Australian lizard reproduction has contributed to answering broader evolutionary and ecological questions that apply to animals in general. We focus on reproductive traits, processes, and strategies that are important areas of current research, including behaviours and signalling involved in courtship; mechanisms involved in mating, egg production, and sperm competition; nesting and gestation; sex determination; and finally, birth in viviparous species. We use our review to identify important questions that emerge from an understanding of this body of research when considered holistically. Finally, we identify additional research questions within each topic that Australian lizards are well suited for reproductive biologists to address.

More than a third of the world’s amphibian species are listed as Threatened or Extinct, with a recent assessment identifying 45 Australian frogs (18.4% of the currently recognised species) as ‘Threatened’ based on IUCN criteria. We applied structured expert elicitation to 26 frogs assessed as Critically Endangered and Endangered to estimate their probability of extinction by 2040. We also investigated whether participant experience (measured as a self-assigned categorical score, i.e. ‘expert’ or ‘non-expert’) influenced the estimates. Collation and analysis of participant opinion indicated that eight species are at high risk (>50% chance) of becoming extinct by 2040, with the disease chytridiomycosis identified as the primary threat. A further five species are at moderate–high risk (30–50% chance), primarily due to climate change. Fourteen of the 26 frog species are endemic to Queensland, with many species restricted to small geographic ranges that are susceptible to stochastic events (e.g. a severe heatwave or a large bushfire). Experts were more likely to rate extinction probability higher for poorly known species (those with

Australia is in the midst of an extinction crisis, having already lost 10% of terrestrial mammal fauna since European settlement and with hundreds of other species at high risk of extinction. The decline of the nation's biota is a result of an array of threatening processes; however, a comprehensive taxon‐specific understanding of threats and their relative impacts remains undocumented nationally. Using expert consultation, we compile the first complete, validated, and consistent taxon‐specific threat and impact dataset for all nationally listed threatened taxa in Australia. We confined our analysis to 1,795 terrestrial and aquatic taxa listed as threatened (Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) under Australian Commonwealth law. We engaged taxonomic experts to generate taxon‐specific threat and threat impact information to consistently apply the IUCN Threat Classification Scheme and Threat Impact Scoring System, as well as eight broad‐level threats and 51 subcategory threats, for all 1,795 threatened terrestrial and aquatic threatened taxa. This compilation produced 4,877 unique taxon–threat–impact combinations with the most frequently listed threats being Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation (n = 1,210 taxa), and Invasive species and disease (n = 966 taxa). Yet when only high‐impact threats or medium‐impact threats are considered, Invasive species and disease become the most prevalent threats. This dataset provides critical information for conservation action planning, national legislation and policy, and prioritizing investments in threatened species management and recovery., Australia is in the midst of an extinction crisis as a result of an array of threatening processes; however, a comprehensive taxon‐specific understanding of threats and their relative impacts remains undocumented nationally. Using expert consultation, we compile the first complete, validated, and consistent taxon‐specific threat and impact dataset for all 1,796 nationally listed threatened taxa in Australia. This compilation produced 4,877 unique taxon–threat combinations with the most frequently listed threats being Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation (n = 1,210 taxa), and Invasive species and disease (n = 966 taxa).

Large predators are particularly susceptible to population declines due to large area requirements, low population density, and conflict with humans. Their low density and secretive habits also make it difficult to know the spatial extent, size, and connectivity of populations; declines hence can go unnoticed. Here, we quantified decline in a large marsupial carnivore, the spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus gracilis), endemic to the Wet Tropics rainforest of northeast Australia. We compiled a large database of occurrence records and used species distributional modeling to estimate the distribution in four time periods (Pre-1956, 1956–1975, 1976–1995, 1996–2016) using climate layers and three human-use variables. The most supported variables in the distribution models were climatic, with highly suitable quoll habitat having relatively high precipitation, low temperatures, and a narrow annual range in temperature. Land-use type and road density also influenced quoll distribution in some time periods. The modeling revealed a significant decline in the distribution of D. m. gracilis over the last century, with contraction away from peripheral areas and from large areas of the Atherton Tablelands in the center of the distribution. Tests of the change in patch availability for populations of 20, 50, and 100 individuals revealed a substantial (17–32%) decline in available habitat for all population sizes, with a particular decline (31–40%) in core habitat (i.e., excluding edges). Six remaining populations were defined. Extrapolating capture–recapture density estimates derived from two populations in 2017 suggests these populations are small and range from about 10 to 160 individuals. Our total population estimate sums to 424 individuals, but we outline why this estimate is positively skewed and that the actual population size may be < 300 individuals. Continued decline and apparent absence in areas of highly suitable habitat suggests some threats are not being captured in our models. From our results, we provide management and research recommendations for this enigmatic predator.

A population of white-footed dunnarts (Sminthopsis leucopus) occurs in the Wet Tropics bioregion of tropical north Queensland, Australia separated by about 1800 km from conspecifics in temperate New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania. We conducted targeted surveys for S. leucopus in north-east Queensland and obtained new records, including the first reported capture of the species in Queensland in 18 years. We assessed the genetic and morphological divergence of the north Queensland population against New South Wales, Victorian and Tasmanian S. leucopus, in conjunction with distribution and habitat differences, to assess whether this isolate should be described as a distinct taxon. Sequencing of the mitochondrial Cytochrome b gene revealed genetic divergence estimates of 2.3–2.8% and 4.3–4.8% between the north Queensland population and S. l. ferruginifrons (Victoria) and S. l. leucopus (Tasmania) respectively. Based on genetic divergence, cranial morphology, differences in habitat, and geographical isolation, we describe the north Queensland population as a new subspecies of Sminthopsis leucopus. We suggest a conservation classification of Endangered given its small distribution, apparent low density, tropical upland location and potential threats, especially related to climate change.

Background Globally, amphibian species have suffered drastic population declines over the past 40 years. Hundreds of species are now listed as Critically Endangered, with many of these considered “possibly extinct”. Most of these species are stream-dwelling frogs inhabiting remote, montane areas, where remnant populations are hard to find using traditional surveys. Environmental DNA (eDNA) could revolutionize surveys for ‘missing’ and endangered amphibian populations by screening water samples from downstream sections to assess presence in the upstream catchments. However, the utility of this survey technique is dependent on quantifying downstream detection probability and distances. Methods Here we tested downstream detection distances in two endangered stream frogs (Litoria lorica and L. nannotis) that co-occur in a remote stream catchment in north-east Australia, and for which we know precise downstream distributional limits from traditional surveys. Importantly, the two last populations of L. lorica persist in this catchment: one small (~1,000 frogs) and one very small (~100 frogs). We conducted eDNA screening at a series of sites kilometers downstream from the populations using precipitation from two fixed water volumes (15 and 100 mL) and via water filtering (mean 1,480 L). Results We detected L. nannotis and the small L. lorica population (~1,000 frogs) at most sampling sites, including 22.8 km downstream. The filtration method was highly effective for far-downstream detection, as was precipitation from 100 mL water samples, which also resulted in consistent detections at the far-downstream sites (including to 22.8 km). In contrast, we had limited downstream detection success for the very small L. lorica population (~100 frogs). Discussion The ecological aspects of our study system, coupled with thorough traditional surveys, enabled us to measure downstream eDNA detection distances with accuracy. We demonstrate that eDNA from a small population of approximately 1,000 frogs can be detected as far as 22.8 km downstream from the population. Water filtration is considered best for eDNA detection of rare aquatic species—indeed it was effective in this study—but we also achieved far-downstream detections when precipitating eDNA from 100 mL water samples. Collecting small water volumes for subsequent precipitation in the lab is more practical than filtration when surveying remote areas. Our downstream detection distances (>20 km) suggest eDNA is a valuable tool for detecting rare stream amphibians. We provide recommendations on optimal survey methods.

Animals use mating traits to compete for, attract, and choose mates. Because mating traits influence mate choice, the divergence of mating traits between populations can result in reproductive isolation. This can occur without associated morphological divergence, producing reproductively isolated cryptic species that are visually indistinguishable. Thus, identifying the mating traits in morphologically conservative groups is key to resolving diversity and speciation processes. Lizards contain many such groups, with phylogeographic studies often revealing highly divergent but morphologically cryptic lineages within species. Considering that cryptic lizard species can be sympatric but morphologically indistinguishable, we hypothesize that candidate species will exhibit divergent pheromones and that pheromones will have typically diverged more than morphology. To test this, we used gas chromatography to characterize pheromones (epidermal pore secretions) from 10 genetically divergent lineages of the Bynoe's gecko (Heteronotia binoei) species complex in northern Australia. Multivariate analyses of pheromone blends and morphology indicate that pheromones are lineage specific and have diverged relatively more than morphology. Such specificity suggests that pheromones influence behavioral isolation in this morphologically conservative lizard radiation. These results suggest that pheromone data may unlock the tremendous cryptic diversity currently being uncovered in many lizard groups.

1. To accurately characterize a species’ thermal niche and aid in predicting effects of climate change we must not only include information on thermal tolerances and physiological responses to changing temperatures, but also incorporate ecological effects and evolutionary processes that may shape a species' niche. However, quickly and practically collecting data on key factors such as adaptation potential, behaviour, effects of species interactions, plasticity and thermal tolerances is logistically challenging. 2. We have therefore created an adjustable temperature array (ATA) to assist with experimental ecology and evolution research. ATA’s are a row of independent temperature points controlled and set by the user and made from commercially available parts. This allows the user to create unique thermal landscapes relevant to their study organism(s) and question(s). Further, the option of using an enclosed cage allows the user to answer questions at the individual, population, or community level in the context of changing thermal environments. ATA's are able to be user‐set to constant or dynamic temperature regimes and are designed for use on small animals (e.g. fruit flies, beetles, mosquitoes) or plants (e.g. germinating seeds). 3. We have tested and confirmed the accuracy of the ATA to several thermal landscapes that would be useful for experimental ecology and evolution, including: (a) coarse resolution of a broad thermal niche ranging from 12° to 42°C in 2°C intervals (R2 = 0.998); (b) fine resolution of a narrow thermal niche ranging from 15° to 32°C in 1°C intervals (R2 = 0.997); (c) a pyramid‐shaped niche consisting of a gradient from 14° to 30°C in 2°C intervals (R2 = 0.997); and (d) a very narrow thermal niche with replicate thermal resources ranging from 26.5° to 34°C in 1.5°C intervals (R2 = 0.989). 4. The equipment described here is an important tool for thermal niche studies and will aid in gathering information on effects of ecological and evolutionary processes to create a comprehensive picture of species responses to climate change.

Our knowledge of the conservation status of reptiles, the most diverse class of terrestrial vertebrates, has improved dramatically over the past decade, but still lags behind that of the other tetrapod groups. Here, we conduct the first comprehensive evaluation (~92% of the world’s ~1,714 described species) of the conservation status of skinks (Scincidae), a speciose reptile family with a worldwide distribution. Using International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria, we report that ~20% of species are threatened with extinction, and nine species are Extinct or Extinct in the Wild. The highest levels of threat are evident in Madagascar and the Neotropics, and in the subfamilies Mabuyinae, Eugongylinae and Scincinae. The vast majority of threatened skink species were listed based primarily on their small geographic ranges (Criterion B, 83%; Criterion D2, 13%). Although the population trend of 42% of species was stable, 14% have declining populations. The key threats to skinks are habitat loss due to agriculture, invasive species, and biological resource use (e.g., hunting, timber harvesting). The distributions of 61% of species do not overlap with protected areas. Despite our improved knowledge of the conservation status of the world’s skinks, 8% of species remain to be assessed, and 14% are listed as Data Deficient. The conservation status of almost a quarter of the world’s skink species thus remains unknown. We use our updated knowledge of the conservation status of the group to develop and outline the priorities for the conservation assessment and management of the world’s skink species.

Understanding the adaptive potential of a species is key when predicting whether a species can contend with climate change. Adaptive capacity depends on the amount of genetic variation within a population for relevant traits. However, genetic variation changes in different environments, making it difficult to predict whether a trait will respond to selection when not measured directly in that environment. Here, we investigated how genetic variances, and phenotypic and genetic covariances, between a fitness trait and morphological traits changed between thermal environments in two closely-related Drosophila. If morphological traits strongly correlate with fitness, they may provide an easy-to-measure proxy of fitness to aid in understanding adaptation potential. We used a parent-offspring quantitative genetic design to test the effect of a benign (23°C) and stressful (28°C) thermal environment on genetic variances of fecundity and wing size and shape, and their phenotypic and genetic covariances. We found genetic variances were higher within the stressful environment for fecundity but lower within the stressful environment for wing size. We did not find evidence for significant phenotypic correlations. Phenotypic and genetic correlations did not reveal a consistent pattern between thermal environments or within or between species. This corroborates previous research and reiterates that conclusions drawn in one environment about the adaptive potential of a trait, and the relationship of that trait with fitness, cannot be extrapolated to other environments or within or between closely-related species. This confirms that researchers should use caution when generalising findings across environments in terms of genetic variation and adaptive potential.

The Einasleigh Uplands bioregion of central north Queensland, Australia, harbours a unique suite of reptiles that have begun to receive significant attention in the last 20 years. This has resulted in a number of new reptile species being described, and recognition that others await description. We describe a new species of Lucasium Wermuth, 1965 from the western Einasleigh Uplands. Lucasium iris sp. nov. is genetically distinct and morphologically diagnosable from all congeners by its large size, long and narrow tail, nares in contact with rostral scale, homogeneous body scales, distinct vertebral stripe, and paired, enlarged, apical subdigital lamellae. It is known from low rocky hills in a localised area of the Gregory Range, has the most restricted known distribution of any Lucasium, and is the only Lucasium endemic to Queensland. The new species appears most closely related to L. steindachneri (Boulenger, 1885), based on mitochondrial DNA sequences, but has a colour-pattern more similar to L. immaculatum Storr, 1988. All three of these species occur in the Einasleigh Uplands, but only L. steindachneri is known to occur in sympatry with L. iris sp. nov. In addition to the description of the new species, we present records of Lucasium immaculatum from the Einasleigh Uplands, which represent a significant known range extension.

As we collect range-wide genetic data for morphologically-defined species, we increasingly unearth evidence for cryptic diversity. Delimiting this cryptic diversity is challenging, both because the divergences span a continuum and because the lack of overt morphological differentiation suggests divergence has proceeded heterogeneously. Herein, we address these challenges as we diagnose and describe species in three co-occurring species groups of Australian lizards. By integrating genomic and morphological data with data on hybridization and introgression from contact zones, we explore several approaches-and their relative benefits and weaknesses-for testing the validity of cryptic lineages. More generally, we advocate that genetic delimitations of cryptic diversity must consider whether these lineages are likely to be durable and persistent through evolutionary time.

Background The application of target capture with next-generation sequencing now enables phylogenomic analyses of rapidly radiating clades of species. But such analyses are complicated by extensive incomplete lineage sorting, demanding the use of methods that consider this process explicitly, such as the multispecies coalescent (MSC) model. However, the MSC makes strong assumptions about divergence history and population structure, and when using the full Bayesian implementation, current computational limits mean that relatively few loci and samples can be analysed for even modest sized radiations. We explore these issues through analyses of an extensive (> 1000 loci) dataset for the Australian rainbow skinks. This group consists of 3 genera and 41 described species, which likely diversified rapidly in Australia during the mid-late Miocene to occupy rainforest, woodland, and rocky habitats with corresponding diversity of morphology and breeding colouration. Previous phylogenetic analyses of this group have revealed short inter-nodes and high discordance among loci, limiting the resolution of inferred trees. A further complication is that many species have deep phylogeographic structure – this poses the question of how to sample individuals within species for analyses using the MSC. Results Phylogenies obtained using concatenation and summary coalescent species tree approaches to the full dataset are well resolved with generally consistent topology, including for previously intractable relationships near the base of the clade. As expected, branch lengths at the tips are substantially overestimated using concatenation. Comparisons of different strategies for sampling haplotypes for full Bayesian MSC analyses (for one clade and using smaller sets of loci) revealed, unexpectedly, that combining haplotypes across divergent phylogeographic lineages yielded consistent species trees. Conclusions This study of more than 1000 loci provides a strongly-supported estimate of the phylogeny of the Australian rainbow skinks, which will inform future research on the evolution and taxonomy of this group. Our analyses suggest that species tree estimation with the MSC can be quite robust to violation of the assumption that the individuals representing a taxon are sampled from a panmictic population. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1130-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The genus Proablepharus currently contains five species (P. barrylyoni, P. kinghorni, P. naranjicaudus, P. reginae and P. tenuis). Morphologically, these are readily separated into two groups: the small, almost patternless species (P. reginae and P. tenuis) and the larger, striped species (P. kinghorni, P. barrylyoni and P. naranjicaudus). We present genetic and morphological data to demonstrate that these two groups are generically distinct from each other. As P. reginae is the type species for Proablepharus, we erect a new genus, Austroablepharus gen. nov., for the kinghorni group and designate A. kinghorni as the type species.

Species interactions can determine range limits, and parasitism is the most intimate of such interactions. Intriguingly, the very conditions on range edges likely change host-parasite dynamics in nontrivial ways. Range edges are often associated with clines in host density and with environmental transitions, both of which may affect parasite transmission. On advancing range edges, founder events and fitness/dispersal costs of parasitism may also cause parasites to be lost on range edges. Here we examine the prevalence of three species of parasite across the range edge of an invasive gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus, in northeastern Australia. The gecko's range edge spans the urban-woodland interface at the edge of urban areas. Across this edge, gecko abundance shows a steep decline, being lower in the woodland. Two parasite species (a mite and a pentastome) are coevolved with H. frenatus, and these species become less prevalent as the geckos become less abundant. A third species of parasite (another pentastome) is native to Australia and has no coevolutionary history with H. frenatus. This species became more prevalent as the geckos become less abundant. These dramatic shifts in parasitism (occurring over 3.5 km) confirm that host-parasite dynamics can vary substantially across the range edge of this gecko host.

The impacts of pathogen emergence in naive hosts can be catastrophic, and pathogen spread now ranks as a major threat to biodiversity. However, pathogen impacts can persist for decades after epidemics and produce variable host outcomes. Chytridiomycosis in amphibians (caused by the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) is an exemplar, with impacts ranging from rapid population crashes and extinctions, to population declines and subsequent recoveries. Here, we investigate long-term impacts associated with chytridiomycosis in Australia. We conducted a continent-wide assessment of the disease, reviewing data collected since the arrival of Bd in about 1978, to assess and characterize mechanisms driving past, present and future impacts. We found chytridiomycosis to be implicated in the extinction or decline of 43 of Australia's 238 amphibian species. Population trajectories of declined species are highly variable; six species are experiencing ongoing declines, eight species are apparently stable and 11 species are recovering. Our results highlight that while some species are expanding, Bd continues to threaten species long after its emergence. Australian case-studies and synthesis of the global chytridiomycosis literature suggests that amphibian reservoir hosts are associated with continued declines in endemically infected populations, while population stability is promoted by environmental conditions that restrict Bd impact, and maintenance of high recruitment capacity that can offset mortality. Host genetic adaptation or decreased pathogen virulence may facilitate species recovery, but neither has been empirically demonstrated. Understanding processes that influence Bd-host dynamics and population persistence is crucial for assessing species extinction risk and identifying strategies to conserve disease-threatened species.

Inland eastern Australia has a complex array of habitats, driven by variation in topography, geology and moisture. This broad region is relatively poorly surveyed compared to coastal eastern Australia and likely contains significant numbers of undescribed reptiles. Oedura monilis is found through much of this region but has been shrouded in taxonomic uncertainty since its original description. Here I assess variation across the range of ‘O. monilis’ and show that it consists of two species: a widespread species in the northern half of the range and a widespread species in the southern half of the range. These two species are readily diagnosed by colour pattern and aspects of shape and scalation. I show that the name O. monilis applies to the northern species. I also show that the name O. attenboroughi Wells & Wellington applies to the northern populations, making it a junior synonym of O. monilis. I describe the southern widespread species as Oedura elegans sp. nov.. I also describe two new, highly localised species from inland eastern Queensland that are allied to O. monilis: Oedura picta sp. nov. from a rocky range in the Moranbah–Dysart region, and Oedura lineata sp. nov. from brigalow forest remnants in the Arcadia Valley. These two species are distinct for colour pattern and aspects of size, shape and scalation. Oedura lineata sp. nov. has a very small and fragmented range, and is restricted to a highly threatened habitat type. It therefore warrants conservation attention. I also provide more detailed diagnoses for O. coggeri Bustard and O. tryoni De Vis, and demonstrate that the name O. ocellata Boulenger is a junior synonym of O. tryoni.

Recent surveys of rocky rainforest in the Townsville region have found additional populations of Phyllurus geckos. One of these populations was discovered at The Pinnacles, an isolated area of habitat in between the distributions of P. gulbaru and P. amnicola. Genetic and morphological data shows that this population is most similar to P. gulbaru Hoskin, Couper & Schneider, 2003 but divergent in a number of traits. Here we describe this population as a new species, P. pinnaclensis sp. nov., based on genetic divergence and differences in a number of morphometric and scalation traits from other populations of Phyllurus. Phyllurus pinnaclensis sp. nov. appears to be restricted to a few small areas of deeply layered rock with associated dry rainforest. This habitat is fire-sensitive and increased frequency and intensity of fires (due to late season burns and high fuel loads of invasive grasses) threatens to reduce and fragment these dry rainforest patches. Other threats include potential future invasion of the habitat by introduced Asian House Geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril & Bibron, 1836) and illegal collecting. Given the very small and fragmented distribution and potential reduction in habitat area due to fire, P. pinnaclensis sp. nov. warrants a Critically Endangered listing. Resolving the distributional change of dry rainforest in the Townsville region in recent decades, particularly in regards to fire, is key to resolving the status of this and other locally threatened taxa that depend on this habitat.

Global biodiversity loss is a profound consequence of human activity. Disturbingly, biodiversity loss is greater than realized because of the unknown number of undocumented species. Conservation fundamentally relies on taxonomic recognition of species, but only a fraction of biodiversity is described. Here, we provide a new quantitative approach for prioritizing rigorous taxonomic research for conservation. We implement this approach in a highly diverse vertebrate group—Australian lizards and snakes. Of 870 species assessed, we identified 282 (32.4%) with taxonomic uncertainty, of which 17.6% likely comprise undescribed species of conservation concern. We identify 24 species in need of immediate taxonomic attention to facilitate conservation. Using a broadly applicable return-on-investment framework, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the fundamental work of identifying species before they are lost., In order to inform conservation effort, there is urgent need for rigorous taxonomic research to describe species under threat of extinction. Implementation of a new prioritization method identified 282 Australian reptile species needing taxonomic research, of which 17.6% represent undescribed species of conservation concern; this approach could be readily implemented across many faunal groups.

Abstract ContextAcoustic communication is common in some animal groups, with an underlying function typically associated with mating or territoriality. Resolving the function of calls is valuable both in terms of understanding the fundamental biology of the species and, potentially, for applied reasons such as detection. Early detection is a key step in exclusion and eradication of invasive species, and calling behaviour can be used in this regard. The Asian house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) is one of a minority of lizards that uses acoustic communication. However, despite how conspicuous the call is, its function remains poorly resolved. It is also one of the world’s most invasive species, with exclusion via early detection being the key form of control. AimsThe aim was to resolve calling patterns and underlying function of the loud, multiple-chirp call (‘chik, chik, chik…’) in H. frenatus, in the context of using the results for developing effective methods for detection of new and establishing populations. MethodsThe calls of wild H. frenatus were recorded to assess peaks in calling activity. Also, laboratory experiments were performed to determine which individuals call, what causes them to call and the degree of call variation among individuals. Key resultsAssessment of calling behaviour in the wild revealed greater calling activity in warmer months, and five- to 10-fold peaks in calling activity at sunset and 30min before sunrise. Laboratory experiments revealed that calls were uttered exclusively by males and primarily by adults (although juveniles can call). Males called more when they were paired with females as opposed to other males. Calls differed among geckos, including the expected negative correlation between dominant frequency and body size. ConclusionsThe results suggest that the multiple-chirp call functions as a territory or sexual broadcast by males, perhaps containing information such as body size. ImplicationsDetection success can be maximised by performing acoustic surveys (by human or machine) during the calling peaks at 30min before sunrise and at sunset, particularly during warm nights. However, these surveys will only be effective for detecting adult males. The results also suggest that good quality recordings could potentially be used to identify individual geckos.

Upon establishment in a new area, invasive species may undergo a prolonged period of relatively slow population growth and spread, known as a lag period. Lag periods are, apparently, common in invasions, but studies of the factors that facilitate subsequent expansions are lacking in natural systems. We used 10 semi-independent invasions of the Asian house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) to investigate which factors facilitate expansion of this human-associated species across the urban-woodland interface. We conducted 590 surveys over 12months on 10 transects running from the urban edge to 2km into adjacent natural woodland. We recorded H.frenatus out to 2km from the urban edge on nine of 10 transects, and at high abundance at many woodland sites. Body size, body condition, sex ratio and proportion of gravid females did not vary with distance from the urban edge, suggesting viable, self-sustaining populations in natural habitats. The extent of expansion was, however, strongly dependent on propagule pressure (the abundance of H.frenatus at the urban edge), and time (time since H.frenatus established in the urban area). The size of the urban area and the structure of the surrounding environment did not impact invasion. Our results show that an invasive species that is deemed human-associated' over most of its range is invading natural habitats, and propagule pressure strongly controls the lag time in this system, a finding that echoes results for establishment probability at larger scales.

Coherent, multi-species conservation strategies rely on up-to-date assessments of extinction risk, and prioritising and implementing well-founded management and research actions. Using IUCN criteria and methods, we reassessed the conservation status of all 243 Australian frog species. We also identified key threats and associated potential management actions. We subsequently scored the relative value, feasibility and current levels of implementation of all management and research actions for threatened and Data Deficient species. These scores were then used to rank the relative priority of management and research actions, identifying the highest priority actions for reducing extinction risk for Australia's frogs. Our revised assessment identified 45 threatened frog species in Australia, a 10% reduction from the 2004 assessment. However, the number of species assessed as Extinct increased by two, and four species were added to the Critically Endangered list. Improvements in conservation status for some species resulted from better knowledge and natural population stabilisation or recovery following disease impacts, rather than as a consequence of management. Improved knowledge has also resulted in a reduction of Data Deficient species from ten to eight. We found substantial reductions in species extinction risk may be achievable by implementing a relatively discrete set of well-targeted management and research actions. Given its simple and dynamic nature, our method can be regularly updated with new information, and can also be applied at different geographic scales. Our prioritisation will enable improved allocation of limited resources to maximise conservation outcomes for Australian frogs.

We compared two bait station techniques for determining the sex and identifying individual spotted-tailed quolls (Dasyurus maculatus gracilis) using images taken by camera traps. One method used bait in a plastic mesh bag and the other was a new method using a raised bait canister to entice the quolls to stand on their hind legs and present their ventral surface to the camera. Individuals were identified from multiple images of their unique spot pattern, and sex was determined from ventral images. The bait bag method was better for detecting quolls and both methods performed similarly in allowing observers to identify individuals from images. However, the bait canister method was superior for determining sex of individuals. Using this new bait canister method, individual identification was possible in 202 out of 206 detection events and the sex of 81% (47 of 58) of identified individuals was confidently assigned from multiple detections. This bait station design can therefore provide additional data on individual quolls and reduces the need for more invasive live-trapping techniques. This methodology could be adapted for other mammals in Australia and worldwide.

Abstract ContextFeral cats have been identified as a key threat to Australia’s biodiversity, particularly in arid areas and tropical woodlands. Their presence, abundance and potential impacts in rainforest have received less attention. AimsTo investigate the distribution and diet of feral cats (Felis catus) in upland rainforest of the Wet Tropics. MethodsWe collated available occurrence records from the Wet Tropics, and data from upland camera-trapping surveys over an 8-year period, to assess geographic and elevational distribution of feral cats in the bioregion. We also assessed the diet of feral cats from scats collected at upland sites. Key resultsFeral cats are widespread through the Wet Tropics bioregion, from the lowlands to the peaks of the highest mountains (>1600m), and in all vegetation types. Abundance appears to vary greatly across the region. Cats were readily detected during camera-trap surveys in some upland rainforest areas (particularly in the southern Atherton Tablelands and Bellenden Ker Range), but were never recorded in some areas (Thornton Peak, the upland rainforest of Windsor Tableland and Danbulla National Park) despite numerous repeated camera-trap surveys over the past 8 years at some of these sites. Scat analysis suggested that small mammals comprise ~70% of the diet of feral cats at an upland rainforest site. Multivariate analysis could not detect a difference in mammal community at sites where cats were detected or not. ConclusionsFeral cats are widespread in the Wet Tropics and appear to be common in some upland areas. However, their presence and abundance are variable across the region, and the drivers of this variability are not resolved. Small mammals appear to be the primary prey in the rainforest, although the impacts of cats on the endemic and threatened fauna of the Wet Tropics is unknown. ImplicationsGiven their documented impact in some ecosystems, research is required to examine the potential impact of cats on Wet Tropics fauna, particularly the many upland endemic vertebrates. Studies are needed on (1) habitat and prey selection, (2) population dynamics, and (3) landscape source–sink dynamics of feral cats in the Wet Tropics.

The need to proactively manage landscapes and species to aid their adaptation to climate change is widely acknowledged. Current approaches to prioritizing investment in species conservation generally rely on correlative models, which predict the likely fate of species under different climate change scenarios. Yet, while model statistics can be improved by refining modeling techniques, gaps remain in understanding the relationship between model performance and ecological reality. To investigate this, we compared standard correlative species distribution models to highly accurate, fine-scale, distribution models. We critically assessed the ecological realism of each species' model, using expert knowledge of the geography and habitat in the study area and the biology of the study species. Using interactive software and an iterative vetting with experts, we identified seven general principles that explain why the distribution modeling under- or overestimated habitat suitability, under both current and predicted future climates. Importantly, we found that, while temperature estimates can be dramatically improved through better climate downscaling, many models still inaccurately reflected moisture availability. Furthermore, the correlative models did not account for biotic factors, such as disease or competitor species, and were unable to account for the likely presence of micro refugia. Under-performing current models resulted in widely divergent future projections of species' distributions. Expert vetting identified regions that were likely to contain micro refugia, even where the fine-scale future projections of species distributions predicted population losses. Based on the results, we identify four priority conservation actions required for more effective climate change adaptation responses. This approach to improving the ecological realism of correlative models to understand climate change impacts on species can be applied broadly to improve the evidence base underpinning management responses.

We describe a new species of velvet gecko (Diplodactylidae: Oedura) from the sandstone ranges of central-north Queensland, Australia. Oedura argentea sp. nov. is a medium-sized (SVL 61–80 mm) gecko that is distinguished from its congeners by a combination of its relatively small size, a pattern of 5–6 dark-edged pale transverse bands from neck to pelvis, a silvery iris, a slender tail, a single cloacal spur, and in possessing 14–22 pre-cloacal pores in males. Oedura argentea sp. nov. is a sandstone specialist currently known only from the Gregory Range and nearby sandstone outcropping at Bulleringa National Park. Further surveys are required to determine the limits of distribution through this region. Oedura argentea sp. nov. is the fifth described species of Oedura in north-eastern Queensland. We also assess the name O. fracticolor De Vis, 1884 because it is an unresolved name pertaining to this general region. Based on colour-pattern and locality in the original description, we conclude that O. fracticolor is a senior synonym of O. castelnaui (Thominot, 1889); however, we propose that priority be overturned under Articles 23.9.1.1 and 23.9.1.2 of the ICZN (1999) and that the name O. fracticolor be regarded as nomen oblitum and O. castelnaui a nomen protectum.

Host–parasite dynamics can play a fundamental role in both the establishment success of invasive species and their impact on native wildlife. The net impact of parasites depends on their capacity to switch effectively between native and invasive hosts. Here we explore host-switching, spatial patterns and simple fitness measures in a slow-expanding invasion: the invasion of Asian house geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus) from urban areas into bushland in Northeast Australia. In bushland close to urban edges, H. frenatus co-occurs with, and at many sites now greatly out-numbers, native geckos. We measured prevalence and intensity of Geckobia mites (introduced with H. frenatus), and Waddycephalus (a native pentastome). We recorded a new invasive mite species, and several new host associations for native mites and geckos, but we found no evidence of mite transmission between native and invasive geckos. In contrast, native Waddycephalus nymphs were commonly present in H. frenatus, demonstrating this parasite's capacity to utilize H. frenatus as a novel host. Prevalence of mites on H. frenatus decreased with distance from the urban edge, suggesting parasite release towards the invasion front; however, we found no evidence that mites affect H. frenatus body condition or lifespan. Waddycephalus was present at low prevalence in bushland sites and, although its presence did not affect host body condition, our data suggest that it may reduce host survival. The high relative density of H. frenatus at our sites, and their capacity to harbour Waddycephalus, suggests that there may be impacts on native geckos and snakes through parasite spillback.

In many reptile groups, molecular systematics is currently revealing high levels of cryptic diversity (i.e. genetically distinct lineages that are difficult to distinguish morphologically). One obvious mode for mate discrimination in these cryptic species is chemoreception. We hypothesise that diversity in these groups is not cryptic for pheromones, and mate recognition via chemoreception may be the primary reproductive isolating mechanism. Here, we present a preliminary study of chemoreception in Lampropholis coggeri, a rainforest skink of north-eastern Australia. We first describe the mating behaviour of captive pairs, showing that tongue-flicking is an important component for both males and females, and find that L. coggeri mate more readily when paired with a conspecific from their own population vs. from a nearby population. Based on the assumption that tongue-flicking represents the lizard’s interest, we then experimentally tested scent discrimination using lizard-swabbed cotton buds presented to captive individuals. We found both sexes tongue-flicked more to conspecific scent than to unscented controls. Males tongue-flicked more to female scent than to male scent but did not discriminate between mated and unmated females. While females showed greater interest in conspecific scent, they showed no greater interest in scent from males than females. This lack of discrimination was true for both mated and unmated females. Unexpectedly, however, mated females tongue-flicked substantially more than unmated females. Finally, males tended to tongue flick more often to female scents from their own population than to a nearby population that is moderately genetically divergent. Our results suggest that chemoreception plays a role in mate recognition in this species. Further work should extend to establishing mate recognition between the highly divergent cryptic lineages within this species and the pheromones underlying mate recognition.

The Magnificent Broodfrog Pseudophryne covacevichae Ingram and Corben 1994 is a Vulnerable frog species that was believed to be highly localised in the Ravenshoe region of the southern Atherton Tableland, north Queensland. Here we extend the known range of P. covacevichae approximately 160 km south-southeast to the Paluma Range. This represents a significant range extension and we point out the need for surveys in the intervening upland open forests, and genetic analysis of population structure of this threatened species. Additionally, we extend the range of Uperoleia altissima Davies et al. 1993 south to the Paluma Range, and provide additional information on its distribution and habitat. We also discuss the need for detailed analysis of the relationship between P. covacevichae and the phenotypically similar species P. major Parker 1940.

[Extract] In the 1980s and early 1990s, an outbreak of the fungal disease chytridiomycosis caused multiple species of frog to decline or disappear throughout the Wet Tropics of northern Queensland, Australia (Richards et al. 1993, McDonald and Alford 1999). This disease is caused by the pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd; Berger et al. 1998), which does not grow well at warm temperatures (Piotrowski et al. 2004). As a result, the declines often followed elevational gradients, with the most severe declines occurring at cool, high‐elevation sites. For example, populations of the waterfall frog (Litoria nannotis), common mist frog (Litoria rheocola), and Australian lace‐lid frog (Litoria [Nyctimystes] dayi) disappeared above 300–400 m, but these species did not decline noticeably in the lowlands (Richards et al. 1993; Laurance et al. 1996; McDonald and Alford 1999). The green‐eyed tree frog (Litoria serrata; formerly L. genimaculata) also declined sharply above 300–400 m, but it did not completely disappear from those sites (Richards and Alford 2005). Although these declines and disappearances are well documented, much less attention has been given to the fact that many of the upland populations have recovered to varying degrees, even though Bd persists at a relatively high prevalence.

Australia is a global hotspot of reptile diversity, hosting similar to 10% of the world's squamate (snake and lizard) species. Yet the conservation status of the Australian squamate fauna has not been assessed for >25 years; a period during which the described fauna has risen by similar to 40%. Here we provide the first comprehensive conservation assessment of Australian terrestrial squamates using IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Most (86.4%; n = 819/948) Australian squamates were categorised as Least Concern, 4.5% were Data Deficient, and 7.1% (range 6.8%-11.3%, depending on the treatment of Data Deficient species) were threatened (3.0% Vulnerable, 2.7% Endangered, 1.1% Critically Endangered). This level of threat is low relative to the global average (similar to 18%). One species (Emoia nativitatis) was assessed as Extinct, and two species (Lepidodactylus listeri and Cryptoblepharus egeriae) are considered Extinct in the Wild: all three were endemic to Christmas Island. Most (75.1%) threat assessments were based on geographic range attributes, due to limited data on population trends or relevant proxies. Agriculture, fire, and invasive species were the threats that affected the most species, and there was substantial geographic variation in the number of species affected by each threat. Threatened species richness peaked on islands, in the Southern Alps, and across northern Australia. Data deficiency was greatest in northern Australia and in coastal Queensland. Approximately one-in-five threatened species were not represented in a single protected area. Our analyses shed light on the species, regions, and threats in most urgent need of conservation intervention.