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Pinkeye is a highly contagious disease of goats with different aetiologies. Surveys in Lao PDR have identified eye lesions typical of pinkeye as a common condition, however, this has not been confirmed diagnostically, and the responsible pathogens have not been identified. A matched case-control study was implemented in 70 goat holdings from Savannakhet province, Lao PDR, to detect agents causing pinkeye and conduct phylogenetic analysis of the identified pathogens. Fifty eye swabs from goats with infected eyes (cases) and 50 paired samples from unaffected cohorts (controls) were collected from 25 holdings. Samples were tested using quantitative PCR assays targeting known pinkeye pathogens at the genus and species levels. The prevalence of pathogens in case and control goats was as follows: Mycoplasma conjunctivae (94% and 74% respectively, P = 0.006, OR = 5.5), Chlamydia pecorum (4%, 10%), Moraxella ovis (30%, 30%), Moraxella bovis (0%, 0%) and Moraxella bovoculi (0%, 0%). M. conjunctivae was present in a high proportion of goats in both groups revealing that Lao goats are carriers of M. conjunctivae. However, the mean log 10 genome copy number/µL of DNA extract was significantly higher in case goats than control goats (P < 0.05). Thus, M. conjunctivae is likely the principal causative agent of pinkeye in Lao goats with carrier status converting to clinical infection following corneal damage or other causative factors. M. conjunctivae detected in samples from different goats and districts showed low genetic diversity. Identifying the causes of pinkeye in Lao goats will assist in designing appropriate treatment and control strategies., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate ocular surface parameters in dogs with normal eyes when exposed to 3 different air quality index (AQI) categories corresponding to levels of normal air pollutants ("good," 0 to 50; "moderate," 51 to 100) and wildfire smoke ("smoke," 101 to 150)., Animals: 15 privately owned dogs., Methods: A prospective cohort study with dogs living in northern Colorado. Ocular surface parameters (conjunctival chemosis and hyperemia, Schirmer tear test-1, tear film break-up time, fluorescein stain, conjunctival microbiology, etc) were evaluated when the AQI was reported in 1 of the 3 categories (good, moderate, and smoke) for 3 consecutive days. The AQI and air pollutant levels (particulate matter < 2.5 μm in diameter [PM2.5], ozone, etc) were retrieved from the AirNow database., Results: Due to scheduling conflicts, only 7 dogs were examined during the smoke category. Average AQI in the 3 categories were good, 44.1; moderate, 73.7; and smoke, 103.7. The odds for more severe hyperemia and more severe chemosis for smoke were 5.39 and 7,853.02 times the odds, respectively, when compared to good AQI. Additionally, the odds for more severe chemosis were 34,656.62 times the odds for smoke when compared to moderate AQI. A significant relationship was found between chemosis and PM2.5., Conclusions: Exposure to increased AQI related to wildfire smoke caused a significant increase in conjunctivitis. The significant relationship between chemosis and PM2.5 could indicate that PM2.5 in wildfire smoke is associated with an inflammatory factor., Clinical Relevance: Preventive measures (eg, use of eyewash, artificial tears, or eye protection) for dogs that are exposed to wildfire smoke should be instituted to decrease the risk of ocular irritation.

Objective: To evaluate the incidence, clinical features, treatment, and outcome of canine follicular conjunctivitis (CFC)., Procedure: Medical records of dogs diagnosed with CFC were reviewed. Data recorded included signalment, duration of clinical signs and treatment details prior to presentation, concurrent ocular/systemic diseases, ocular clinical signs, cytology, treatment, follow-up, and outcome. Blepharospasm, signs of self-trauma, hyperemia, chemosis, ocular discharge, and follicle location and severity (0.5-4) were retrospectively evaluated. Based on severity, treatment consisted of topical 0.1% diclofenac or 0.1% dexamethasone sodium eyedrops. Dogs were classified into young (YD < 18 months) and adult (AD ≥ 18 months)., Results: One hundred and fifty-three dogs (276 eyes) were included in the study: 83YD (54%) and 70AD (46%). Males and bilateral disease were over-represented in both groups. Severity was associated with young age (p = .032) and bilaterality (p = .025), and not with dermatological diseases (p > .05). No differences in follicular location were observed except for more frequent involvement of the nictitating membrane (MN) in YD (p = .02). Response to treatment was faster in AD (p = .001), with complete resolution in 80.6% of the eyes (100/124) at 1 month. YD treated with diclofenac showed faster resolution than those treated with 0.1% dexamethasone (p = .009)., Conclusions: Although CFC is a bilateral ocular disease occurring at any age, the clinical presentation is influenced by age. Follicular conjunctivitis in adult dogs is less sever, less commonly affects the NM, and responds more quickly to topical treatment. One month of topical diclofenac may be adequate for mild cases, and 1 month of topical 0.1% dexamethasone is recommended as initial therapy for moderate to severely affected cases., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Ophthalmology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

This report aims to describe a case of tumor-like lymphoplasmacytic conjunctivitis in a 7-year-old spayed-female Pomeranian. On complete ophthalmic examination, a mass with papillary projections was noted on the bulbar surface of the right third eyelid. Debulking of the mass was performed while preserving as much of the third eyelid as possible. On the histopathological examination, the mass was diagnosed as lymphoplasmacytic conjunctivitis with mild epithelial hyperplasia. Although a slight regrowth of the mass was noted 3 weeks after surgery, intralesional injection of triamcinolone acetonide led to its disappearance. There was no further recurrence after 5 months., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (© 2024 The Korean Society of Veterinary Science.)

Chlamydia (C.) suis, a zoonotic intracellular bacterium, is described as a causative agent for conjunctivitis, particularly in nursery and fattening pigs. Chlamydiaceae are claimed to survive drying and to persist in dust. The objective of this study was to evaluate the viability of Chlamydia in dust sampled in a fattening pig farm with a high appearance of chlamydial-induced conjunctivitis. Dust was collected and stored at room temperature. To evaluate bacterial load and survival over time, quantitative PCR (Chlamydiaceae, C. suis) and isolation in cell culture were performed every week for up to 16 weeks. While qPCR results remained highly positive with consistent bacterial loads between 10 3 and 10 4 copy numbers/100 μL eluate over a period of 16 weeks and even after 40 weeks, it was not possible to isolate Chlamydia except for the initial sample. These results show only short-term viability of C. suis in dust. This is an important information regarding reduction of chlamydial loads in pig farms and risk for pigs and people to get infected via dust., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To describe the most common ocular lesions and demonstrate the frequency of ophthalmic involvement in a group of cats with systemic sporotrichosis., Animals Studied: Two hundred seventy-four cats diagnosed with systemic sporotrichosis. The inclusion criteria included previous positive cytopathological examination, histopathological examination, or fungal culture., Procedures: In a prospective case-control study, 274 cats diagnosed with systemic sporotrichosis underwent ophthalmic evaluation and received treatment for systemic sporotrichosis. Of these animals, 63 had ocular abnormalities which were recorded, and conjunctivitis was scored from 0 to 5. Diagnostic techniques utilized included fungal culture, as well as cytopathological (10 eyes; 10 cats), and histopathological examination of the palpebral conjunctiva and eyes (2 eyes)., Results: Cytopathological and histopathological examination of the conjunctiva, as well as fungal culture, proved to be important tests for the detection of Sporothrix sp. Five cats without the evidence of ophthalmic abnormalities also had a positive fungal culture. The identified ocular lesions in animals with systemic sporotrichosis included increased serous discharge (79 eyes; 53 cats), blepharoconjunctivitis (33 eyes; 25 cats), conjunctivitis (39 eyes, 20 cats), blepharitis (9 eyes; 8 cats), uveitis (5 eyes; 3 cats), and Florida keratopathy-like lesions (2 eyes; 1 cat)., Conclusion: Sporotrichosis should be considered a differential diagnosis for conjunctivitis and blepharoconjunctivitis, especially in endemic areas. Fungal culture and cytopathology of ocular discharge and histopathological examinations of the conjunctiva are important for the diagnosis of ophthalmic sporotrichosis, although not all cats underwent laboratory testing in this study. Ocular discharge could be a source of contagion transmission., (© 2022 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Objective: To describe a case of lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis in a horse., Animal Studied: A client-owned 12-year-old Standardbred gelding presenting with chronic conjunctivitis and palpebral masses., Methods: Complete ophthalmic examination, surgical excision, histopathology, and bacterial culture of biopsy samples were performed., Results: Upper and lower eyelids of both eyes were affected, with multiple yellow-to-white nodules on the palpebral conjunctiva, adjacent to the eyelid margin. Nodule removal was achieved via partial tarsal plate excision. Histopathological examination revealed granulomatous inflammation and large droplets of presumed free lipid in the conjunctival lamina propria. The animal was diagnosed with lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis. No postoperative ocular discomfort was observed for months; however, 3 years later, new conjunctival nodules were noticed, requiring a second surgical procedure on three of the eyelids. Transient entropion in the left lower eyelid was observed 2 months after the second surgery, and no recurrence of conjunctival nodules was observed after 18 months of follow-up., Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first report of lipogranulomatous conjunctivitis in horses., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Ophthalmology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

A wild Agassiz's desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii, with bilateral eyelid reduction and plaques of tissue covering the superior surface of both corneas was examined in the field and subsequently submitted to the University of Florida for diagnostics. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), from a swab of both corneas, was positive for Mycoplasma agassizii. Two months later, the tortoise was euthanatized and necropsied. There was increased bulbar exposure associated with dermal excoriation of periocular scales in both superior and inferior palpebra resulting in an increased palpebral fissure opening. Concurrently, there was bilateral conjunctivitis of the nictitating membranes and squamous metaplasia of the bulbar conjunctiva. Using PCR, Mycoplasma testudineum, another pathogen of tortoises, was identified in both nasal cavities, and the upper respiratory tract histopathological findings were consistent with those described for M. testudineum in Agassiz's desert tortoises. Although eye disease has been reported in desert and gopher (Gopherus polyphemus) tortoises with mycoplasmosis, widespread loss of palpebral tissue, conjunctivitis of the nictitans, and squamous metaplasia of the bulbar conjunctiva have not been reported in tortoises., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Ophthalmology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.)

Infections can have far-reaching sublethal effects on wildlife, including reduced maintenance of external structures. For many wildlife taxa, daily maintenance of external structures (termed preening in birds) is critical to fitness, but few studies have examined how infections alter such maintenance. Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a common pathogen in free-living House Finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), where it causes mycoplasmal conjunctivitis. Despite documented behavioral changes associated with M. gallisepticum infections in finches, no studies have examined how preening behavior may change with infection and how potential differences in preening may affect feather quality. To test this, we experimentally inoculated captive House Finches with M. gallisepticum or a control treatment, and we collected behavioral and feather quality data to detect potential changes in feather maintenance due to infection. We found that finches infected with M. gallisepticum preened significantly less often, and within the infected treatment, birds with the highest conjunctivitis severity preened the least often. However, there was no difference in the quality scores for secondary flight feathers collected from control versus infected birds. We also assayed feather water retention and found that the degree of water retention correlated with our feather quality scores, such that feathers with poor scores retained more water. However, as with quality scores, feather water retention did not differ with infection; this may be due to the controlled environment that the birds experienced while in captivity. Our data suggest that, in addition to sickness behaviors previously observed in finches, M. gallisepticum infection decreases other behaviors critical to survival, such as preening. While the consequences of reduced preening on feather maintenance were not apparent in captive conditions, further work is needed to determine whether House Finches in the wild that are infected with M. gallisepticum experience a fitness cost, such as increases in ectoparasite loads, due to this reduced feather maintenance., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2023.)

Eosinophilic keratitis is a disease of the feline ocular surface. It is characterized by conjunctivitis, white to pink raised plaques on the corneal and conjunctival surfaces, corneal vascularization, and variable ocular pain. Cytology is the diagnostic test of choice. Identification of eosinophils in a corneal cytology sample usually confirms the diagnosis, although lymphocytes, mast cells, and neutrophils are often present concurrently. Immunosuppressives are the mainstay of therapy, topically or systemically. The role of feline herpesvirus-1 in the pathogenesis of eosinophilic keratoconjunctivitis (EK) remains unclear. Eosinophilic conjunctivitis is a less common manifestation of EK and presents as severe conjunctivitis without corneal involvement., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Ever since 1994, when the bacterial pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum jumped from poultry to wild birds, it has been assumed that the primary host species of this pathogen in wild North American birds was the house finch ( Haemorhous mexicanus ), in which disease prevalence was higher than in any other bird species. Here we tested two hypotheses to explain a recent increase in disease prevalence in purple finches ( Haemorhous purpureus ) around Ithaca, New York. Hypothesis 1 is that, as M. gallisepticum evolved and became more virulent, it has also become better adapted to other finches. If this is correct, early isolates of M. gallisepticum should cause less-severe eye lesions in purple finches than in house finches, while more-recent isolates should cause eye lesions of similar severity in the two species. Hypothesis 2 is that, as house finch abundance declined following the M. gallisepticum epidemic, purple finches around Ithaca increased in abundance relative to house finches and purple finches are thus more frequently exposed to M. gallisepticum -infected house finches. This would then lead to an increase in M. gallisepticum prevalence in purple finches. Following an experimental infection with an early and a more-recent M. gallisepticum isolate, eye lesions in purple finches were more severe than in house finches. This did not a support Hypothesis 1; similarly, an analysis of Project Feeder Watch data collected around Ithaca did not show differences in changes in purple and house finches' abundance since 2006, a result which does not support Hypothesis 2. We conclude that purple finch populations will, unlike those of house finches, not suffer a severe decline because of a M. gallisepticum epidemic.

Introduction: In a guinea pig herd with 26 breeding animals, several individuals of all age categories died (16/26) after three animals had been newly introduced from another herd. Furthermore, the population suffered of apathy, anorexia, severe weight loss and conjunctivitis, as well as abortions and stillbirths. At the same time, the owner experienced a SARS-CoV-2 infection with pneumonia, which was confirmed by taking a PCR test. Chlamydia caviae was detected from the conjunctiva and vagina/uterus in one juvenile animal together with an intestinal Cryptosporidium wrairi infection. Oocysts were found histologically in the small intestine, which was confirmed by PCR. C. wairi is a parasite adapted to guinea pigs with zoonotic potential, which causes diarrhoea with frequent deaths in larger guinea pig herds. C. caviae is also a zoonotic pathogen and often the cause of conjunctivitis, pneumonia and abortions in guinea pigs and can lead to upper respiratory tract disease, conjunctivitis but also severe pneumonia in humans. The increased death cases and the clinical signs could be traced back to an infection with Cryptosporidium wrairi, complicated by a co-infection of C. caviae. We suspect that the abortions were caused by C. caviae, but since the population was treated with various antibiotics effective against chlamydial infections, it was no longer possible to verify this by PCR testing. Unfortunately, more animals succumbed and finally only two animals of the originally 26 were left. With this case report, we would like to point out to veterinarians that guinea pigs can be an important source of zoonotic infections for various pathogens, especially since they are popular pets and often come into close contact with children where hygiene might not always be strictly followed.

Objective: To describe the cytological analysis of conjunctiva from normal camels and camels with bacterial conjunctivitis., Animals Studied: This study was conducted on 7 normal camels and 15 camels affected with conjunctivitis. The affected camels had a history of conjunctivitis with signs including chemosis, blepharospasm, frequent blinking, and mild-to-moderate serous, mucoid, or purulent ocular discharge., Procedures: Bacterial swabs were collected from the inferior conjunctival sac of the affected eye without topical anesthetics. Conjunctival smears were obtained from the conjunctival surface for cytological analysis., Results: The cellular analysis of ocular smears revealed a higher percentage of basal cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages in camels with conjunctivitis compared with normal camels. In contrast to this, smears from normal camels showed an increased percentage of superficial epithelial cells compared with affected camels. The microbiological assessment of conjunctival swabs collected from affected animals identified a bacterial growth of Staphylococcus aureus., Bacillus sp., Streptococcus sp., Enterococcus faecium., Staphylococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., Coryne pseudotuberculosis., Saprophytica, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulagaris, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa., Conclusions: It was observed that bacterial conjunctivitis in camels was associated with increased percentages of basal epithelial cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and macrophages compared with normal camels, while normal camels showed an increased percentage of superficial epithelial cells compared with affected camels., (© 2022 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Since the removal of the NM causes KCS in dogs, it was contraindicated to remove the NM unless unavoidable such as in a malignant tumour. However, to the best of author's knowledge, there are no reports of conjunctivitis and keratitis owing to decreased tear production following removal of the NM gland. This case study demonstrates the tear production changes in a dog for a year after removal of the nictitating membrane (NM) due to suspicion of a malignant tumour. A 13-year-old spayed female English Cocker Spaniel who had suffered from severe ocular discharge, discomfort, keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), and NM enlargement in the right eye was brought to our hospital. The dog could not tolerate treatment with topical 0.2% cyclosporine or corticosteroids. The dog's right eye had NM gland prolapse, severe follicular conjunctivitis and a very low Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1) value of 3 mm/min. Furthermore, the result of fine needle aspiration of the enlarged NM gland suggested a risk of malignancy. Despite the risk of KCS, complete NM resection was performed to diagnose the tumour. Fortunately, the final histopathological evaluation revealed chronic inflammation without any evidence of malignancy. Contrary to concerns that the STT-1 value would further decrease after the removal of the NM gland, the STT-1 value remained elevated compared to that before surgery, and the clinical symptoms improved for a year. It is generally known that NM gland resection is not recommended due to the risk of developing iatrogenic KCS unless a malignant tumour is suspected. In this case, surgical removal of the inflammatory NM gland that was not responsive to medications had a positive effect on KCS. Since the inflammatory and structural disease of the NM was strengthening KCS, the outcome was thought to be different from that when the normal third eyelid was removed., (© 2022 The Authors. Veterinary Medicine and Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objective: To report an outbreak of follicular conjunctivitis in a group of sheep diagnosed with Anaplasma spp., without any other co-infection., Animals Studied: In all, 18 animals from a sheep head, males and females, from eight months to four years of age, were assessed for follicular conjunctivitis., Procedures: The procedures performed included general physical and ophthalmological examinations; PCR evaluation for infectious agents; analysis of hematological parameters, microbiological tests of ocular swabs, coproparasitological examination, histopathological examination of conjunctival biopsy., Results: All 18 animals had uni- or bilateral follicular conjunctivitis, and one animal also had unilateral uveitis. The results of microbiological analyzes were negative for Moraxella spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Pseudomonas spp., and PCR analysis results were negative for Chlamydia spp., Mycoplasma spp., and Toxoplasma gondii. Anemia, thrombocytopenia, lymphocytosis, and an inclusion body in some erythrocytes, compatible with Anaplasma and PCR analysis for Anaplasma spp. were positive., Conclusion: Anaplasmosis may be associated with follicular conjunctivitis in sheep and should be included in the differential diagnosis list and investigated in cases of conjunctivitis in herds., (© 2022 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Purpose: To describe the most common ocular abnormalities in the Icelandic horse with focus on equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) and association between ocular abnormalities and summer eczema and coat colors., Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study. A complete physical and ophthalmic examination as well as measurement of serum titers for Leptospira serovariants was performed on Icelandic horses from Denmark (DK) and the United States (USA)., Results: One hundred and twelve Icelandic horses living in DK and 26 Icelandic horses living in the United States were included in this study (total of 138 horses, 274 eyes). The three most common ocular abnormalities were follicular conjunctivitis (55.8%, 153/274 eyes), cataracts (27.4%, 75/274 eyes), and multifocal chorioretinopathy ("bullet holes"; 19%, 52/274 eyes). The prevalence for ERU among Icelandic horses aged "eight years and older" was 8% (6/75 horses). The "insidious ERU" type was found in 83% of the ERU cohort (5/6 horses), while "classic ERU" was found in 17% (1/6 horses). A correlation between ERU and cataracts was found in the population (p < .01). Leptospiral serology results were not associated with ERU in either DK or US-Icelandic horses (p = 1.00, p = 1.00, respectively). ERU was not associated with summer eczema (p = .49), and no coat colors were associated with the ocular abnormalities found in the Icelandic horse (all p-values > .05)., Conclusion: Follicular conjunctivitis, cataracts, and multifocal chorioretinopathy were the three most common ocular abnormalities findings. Icelandic horses who were 8 years or older had an 8% prevalence for ERU. Summer eczema and coat color were not associated with evidence of ERU or other ocular abnormalities., (© 2021 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Background: Chlamydophila felis , formerly known as Chlamydia psittaci var. felis , is frequently associated with ocular, respiratory, and occasionally reproduction tract infections. Even though the infection is sometimes asymptomatic, it potentially results in a latent immunosuppressive infection., Objective: This study aimed to identify occurrences of feline chlamydophilosis, rarely reported in cats in Indonesia., Methods: The observation was conducted in three cats with clinical signs of Cp. felis infection, particularly relapsing conjunctivitis. The cats' histories were recorded based on owners' information. Conjunctival swabs were sampled for cytology examination and molecular assay detection. A phylogenetic tree was generated using MEGA-X software to reveal group clustering. A post-mortem examination was performed on the cat that died during an examination., Results: Cp. felis was detected in both cytological examination and polymerase chain reaction assay. The phylogenetic tree demonstrated that the Cp. felis isolated in this study clustered with several other isolates from the other countries. Cp. felis can be isolated from cats with different clinical manifestations and levels of severity. The chronic fatal infection demonstrated interstitial broncho-pneumonia under histopathological examination., Conclusions: Molecular assay of Cp. felis is always recommended to obtain a definitive diagnosis of feline chlamydophilosis since the disease can have various clinical manifestations. Even though it may be subclinical and is often not fatal, an infected cat may be a carrier that could spread the pathogen in the surrounding environment. Serious disease management is suggested to avoid high costs associated with regularly relapsing disease., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (© 2021 The Korean Society of Veterinary Science.)

Ligneous membranitis/conjunctivitis (LM, OMIM 217090) is a hereditary disorder caused by a congenital plasminogen (PLG) deficiency. In veterinary medicine, LM (OMIA 002020-9615) has rarely been reported in Golden Retrievers, Yorkshire Terriers, Doberman Pinschers and Scottish Terriers. In the latter breed, an A>T variation in an intron donor site of the PLG gene (PLG, c.1256+2T>A) has been found to be the sole causative molecular defect reported to date in dogs. Owing to the absence of plasmin enzymatic clearance which in turn depends on the lack of its proenzyme plasminogen, fibrin deposits tend to accumulate in viscous membranes on the eyes, triggering and sustaining an intense inflammatory response. A case of LM was diagnosed in a 7-month-old male Maltese dog. The dog was examined for severe recurrent conjunctivitis. A diagnosis of ligneous conjunctivitis was made by an ophthalmologist after a thorough eye examination and was confirmed by a complete lack of plasma activity of plasminogen. The main local signs were redness of the conjunctiva with persistent membranes having ligneous (wood-like) membranes on the eyes. The disease was associated with a complex rearrangement involving the plasminogen gene loci, causing the complete deletion of exon 1. This study provides a spontaneous animal model for LM associated with complete plasminogen deficiency and provides a method for detecting affected or carrier dogs., (© 2021 The Authors. Animal Genetics published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Stichting International Foundation for Animal Genetics.)

Objective: To investigate the effects of various biological factors on total protein concentration (TPC) and serum albumin levels in canine tears., Animals Studied: 10 healthy beagles (5 female, 5 male) were used., Procedures: Experiments were conducted on separate days, collecting tears with either capillary tubes or Schirmer strips, as follows: (i) Tear collection at 3 hours intervals (from 6 am to 12 am); and (ii) Tear collection before and 20 minutes following topical histamine application (1, 10, 375 mg/mL) to induce mild, moderate, and severe conjunctivitis, respectively. TPC and serum albumin were measured with infrared spectroscopy and ELISA, respectively., Results: Tear film TPC and serum albumin ranged from 9.7-26.1 mg/mL and 6.4-1662.6 µg/mL, respectively. Protein levels did not differ significantly among time points (P ≥ .080). Median coefficient of variation (CV%) was lower with Schirmer strips compared to capillary tubes for both TPC (12% vs 15%, P = .020) and serum albumin (57% vs 78%, P = .232). TPC (P < .001), but not serum albumin was greater in male vs. female dogs. Serum albumin, but not TPC (P ≥ .099), increased significantly with each grade of conjunctivitis severity (P < .001), with no differences between collection devices (P ≥ .322); median increase was 106%, 1389%, and 2871% in eyes with mild, moderate, and severe conjunctivitis, respectively., Conclusions: There is no apparent diurnal variation in canine tear protein levels. Blood-tear barrier breakdown with conjunctivitis allows serum albumin to leak into the tear film at high concentrations. Schirmer strips compare well with capillary tubes for bioanalytical purposes in healthy and diseased eyes, and this collection method may offer improved reproducibility for protein quantification., (© 2020 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Objective: To investigate the effects of acute conjunctivitis on tear film characteristics and corneal sensitivity in dogs., Animals Studied: Eight female spayed Beagle dogs (1.5-2 years old, 7.5-10 kg)., Procedures: On two consecutive days, one randomly selected eye in each dog received 1 or 375 mg/mL histamine solution to induce mild or severe conjunctivitis, while the contralateral eye served as control. Diagnostic tests were performed in the following order: fluorescein instillation and repeated tear collection over 20 minutes (to determine tear volume [TV] and turnover rate [TTR] by fluorophotometry), Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1), tear ferning, corneal esthesiometry, and tear film breakup time (TFBUT)., Results: Results are presented as median values for severe conjunctivitis, mild conjunctivitis, and control eyes. Eyes with severe conjunctivitis had significantly higher STT-1 (24, 19.5, 17.5 mm/min; P = .002) and significantly lower TFBUT (10.5, 13.5, 15.5 s; P = .002), but no changes were noted in corneal tactile sensation (2, 2.5, 2.5 cm) or tear ferning (grades 2, 2, 2.5). Severe conjunctivitis significantly increased TV by nearly 10-fold (631, 97, 65 µL) initially (reflex tearing), although basal TV returned rapidly (<5 minutes) in all eyes (46, 58, 48 µL). Finally, there was a nonsignificant trend for higher reflex TTR in the conjunctivitis vs control eyes (68, 58, 43%/min)., Conclusions: Experimentally induced conjunctivitis increases tear quantity and decreases tear quality in dogs, but has no impact on corneal sensitivity. Changes in tear film dynamics could affect ocular pharmacology (eg, precorneal retention time), although homeostasis of lacrimal volume and drainage is rapidly restored., (© 2020 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Objective: The purpose of this study is to evaluate a group of young commercially available Skinny pigs, to gain information regarding ocular findings in this breed of guinea pig. Comparisons of ocular findings are to be made between Skinny pigs and haired guinea pigs., Animal Studied: Ten haired guinea pigs and ten Skinny pigs were examined., Procedure: A complete ophthalmic examination including Schirmer tear test-II (STT-II), phenol red thread test (PRTT), rebound tonometry with TonoVet PLUS, Fluorescein and Rose Bengal stain was performed. Microbiology swabs for aerobic bacterial growth were collected from conjunctiva of both eyes prior to the ophthalmic examination., Results: The ophthalmic examination revealed seven abnormal ocular findings: trichiasis, mucopurulent discharge, hyperemia/chemosis of the conjunctiva, corneal fibrosis, corneal vascularization, and foreign body on the cornea or conjunctiva. Skinny pigs had a significantly higher amount of mucopurulent discharge (P = .0133) and a significantly higher STT-II (P < .001) than haired guinea pigs. Although not significant, trichiasis, keratitis with corneal vascularization, and foreign body presence were more common in Skinny pigs. Significantly more Skinny pigs had Pasteurellaceae isolated from their conjunctiva than haired guinea pigs (P = .0112). Antimicrobial susceptibility for the five Pasteurellaceae organisms isolated revealed susceptibility toward oxytetracycline, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin, whereas resistance was found toward erythromycin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and moxifloxacin., Conclusion: Young Skinny pigs have a higher risk of Pasteurellaceae-associated conjunctivitis. Oxytetracycline, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin were identified as topical antibiotics that may be useful for Pasteurellaceae-associated conjunctivitis in Skinny pigs., (© 2019 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to describe the clinical findings, diagnostic test results and response to therapy of cats with Schirmer tear test 1 (STT-1) values below the reference interval., Methods: The medical records of three institutions were searched for cats with ocular surface disease and STT-1 values <9 mm/min, confirmed at two or more separate visits., Results: Ten cats (17 eyes) were included. The mean ± SD (range) age and STT-1 values in affected eye(s) were 6.1 ± 5.7 (0.2-16) years and 2.4 ± 3.1 (0-8) mm/min, respectively. Concurrent ocular surface disease was bilateral in 5/10 cats. Clinical signs included conjunctivitis (14/17 eyes), corneal ulceration (6/17 eyes), non-ulcerative keratitis (4/17 eyes), symblepharon (4/17 eyes), eosinophilic keratitis (3/17 eyes), corneal sequestrum (3/17 eyes), corneal fibrosis (2/17 eyes) and meibomitis (2/17 eyes). Management included: topically applied lacrimomimetics, antiviral drugs, corticosteroids or immunomodulatory drugs; orally administered famciclovir; or surgical procedures, in various combinations. Response to therapy (defined as an increase in STT-1 value of ⩾5 mm/min) was transient (seen at a single reassessment) in 65% of eyes and sustained (seen at ⩾2 consecutive reassessments) in 18% of eyes., Conclusions and Relevance: Clinical features seen in cats with low STT-1 values are described, although the association between aqueous deficiency and the reported ocular changes is unknown at this time. We encourage clinicians to assess the tear film in cats with ocular surface disease, and initiate therapy with lacrimomimetics if STT-1 values are repeatedly below normal. Such information will further define aqueous tear deficiency in cats, providing a better understanding of disease prevalence, pathogenesis and treatment.

Conjunctivitis is an uncommon finding in commercial swine herds, and the etiology of the disease is rarely studied. We investigated cases of conjunctivitis in 3 wean-to-finish swine farms. Eye swabs and tissues were obtained from clinically affected pigs (8-22 wk of age), from unaffected pigs in contact with affected pen-mates, and from age-matched pigs from an unaffected herd. Real-time PCR (rtPCR) testing for Mycoplasma hyorhinis demonstrated consistent detection and high bacterial load in samples from affected herds (clinically affected animals and non-clinical pen-mates). Ct values in affected pigs were 18.9-25.3; values were 36.4-38.6 in unaffected pigs from unaffected herds. Additionally, M. hyorhinis was identified within inflamed palpebral conjunctivae by in situ hybridization. The association of rtPCR and in situ detection of M. hyorhinis , along with the lack of detection of other potential pathogens and noninfectious causes, suggests the involvement of M. hyorhinis in the etiology and pathogenesis of the reported swine conjunctivitis.

Purpose: To describe the pharmacokinetics (PK) of prednisone and prednisolone in tear fluid of dogs receiving oral prednisone at anti-inflammatory to immunosuppressive doses and to assess the impact of induced conjunctivitis on lacrimal drug levels. Methods: Six healthy Beagle dogs were administered 4 courses of prednisone at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/kg given orally once a day for 5 days. At steady state, topical histamine was applied to induce mild (1 mg/mL) or severe (375 mg/mL) conjunctivitis in 1 eye of each dog and tear samples were collected from both eyes at selected times. Prednisone and prednisolone were quantified in tears by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Results: Lacrimal prednisone and prednisolone concentrations ranged from 2 to 523 ng/mL and 5 to 191 ng/mL, respectively. Drug concentrations were overall greater in dogs receiving higher doses of prednisone, but were not correlated with tear flow rate. Eyes with conjunctivitis often had larger amounts of prednisone and prednisolone in tear fluid compared to control eyes (up to +64%), but differences were not statistically significant. Significantly greater, but clinically insignificant, levels of prednisolone were found in eyes with severe versus mild conjunctivitis for oral prednisone doses ≥1.0 mg/kg. Conclusions: Disruption of the blood-tear barrier with conjunctivitis did not significantly affect drug levels in tears. Based on drug PK in tears, oral prednisone is likely safe for the management of reflex uveitis and ocular surface diseases. However, further prospective trials using systemic corticotherapy in diseased animals are warranted to confirm findings from this preclinical study.

This article provides a brief, clinically relevant review of corneal surface disease in the ferret. A description of the ophthalmic examination of the ferret is provided. Stepwise descriptions of the most common ophthalmic abnormalities are provided, along with common rule-outs., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Rabbits have become a popular house pet that is encountered with increasing frequency in small animal veterinary practice. The unique anatomy of the rabbit predisposes them to developing surface ocular problems including the development of dacryocystitis, as well as conjunctivitis and keratitis. This article endeavors to give an updated outline of the various conditions affecting the rabbit ocular surface, with emphasis on diagnosis and treatment., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In this article, ocular examination techniques are reviewed in the context of the reptilian patient. Subsequently, ocular surface anatomy and diseases are discussed. Sections for 4 of the 5 Reptilia orders are included: lizards, chelonians, crocodilians, and snakes. Literature pertaining to both wild and captive animals is included., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

An adult great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus; GHOW) presented with a history of recurrent corneal ulceration of the right eye (OD). Findings included ulcerative superficial keratitis, proliferative conjunctivitis, and iris pigmentary changes. The ulcer was initially nonresponsive to medical therapy, but showed rapid and appropriate healing following diamond burr debridement. Proliferative conjunctivitis markedly improved following topical antiviral therapy with cidofovir 1%, interferon alpha 2B ophthalmic solutions, and oral l-lysine. Histopathologic evaluation of a conjunctival biopsy revealed epithelial features suspicious for viral cytopathic changes and intranuclear structures suspicious for viral inclusions, suggestive of a possible viral-induced papillomatous conjunctivitis. A novel alphaherpesvirus, referred to as Strigid Herpesvirus 1 (StrHV1), was identified using PCR and gene sequencing. This case represents a new clinical manifestation of a previously unreported herpesvirus in the GHOW. Identification of the herpes virus was critical to administration of appropriate therapy and resolution of the conjunctivitis, and corneal epithelial debridement promoted resolution of the chronic corneal epithelial defect., (© 2018 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

This article discusses the anatomy, physiology, and common disease affecting the ocular surface of New World camelids, llamas, and alpacas., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Avian ocular disease may be primary or a manifestation of systemic disease. Various infectious and noninfectious diseases have been reported to cause ocular pathology. Thorough physical examination and diagnostic testing are necessary to determine a treatment plan., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This article discusses the clinical appearance, differential diagnoses, and treatment considerations of corneal disease in the most common domesticated species of rodent: mouse, rat, chinchilla, and guinea pig. Many corneal diseases are related to inbred strains of either research or pet rodents. Diseases are complicated by husbandry and treatment-related challenges in this small, social species. This article is broken down by species, first discussing normal anatomy, then discussing commonly encountered diseases, and concluding with treatment considerations., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

An approximately 2-year-old female Doberman Pinscher was referred for the evaluation of bilateral, chronic proliferative conjunctivitis. Ophthalmic examination revealed bilateral thick, opaque pseudomembranes originating from the conjunctivae that prevented visualization of the cornea and interior structures of the eye. Histopathological findings of biopsies of the pseudomembranes were consistent with ligneous conjunctivitis. Serum plasminogen activity levels were within the normal range. Treatment with topical and systemic anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs did not improve the conjunctival lesions. The pseudomembranes were surgically excised, and the conjunctival surfaces were reconstructed with amniotic membrane. At final re-examination two years postsurgery, there was no evidence of recurrence of the pseudomembranes. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of the successful treatment of canine ligneous conjunctivitis with amniotic membrane transplantation., (© 2018 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

Infectious ocular disease, such as conjunctivitis, is common in cats and can be caused by several viruses and bacteria, either as a single infection or as co-infections. In this study, povidone-iodine (PVP-I), alone or compounded with hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), was investigated for its efficacy against these pathogens in vitro. Whilst PVP-I alone was effective at inhibiting feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), Chlamydia felis, and Mycoplasma felis, PVP-I with HEC exerted a synergistic inhibitory effect against FHV-1 and C. felis. In contrast, only minimal inhibition of feline calicivirus was observed. These results demonstrate that PVP-I, alone and in combination with HEC, is effective against some feline ocular pathogens when tested in cell lines in vitro. In vivo studies investigating the systemic safety, ocular tolerance, and clinical efficacy of this combination in cats would be necessary before it could be recommended as a therapy in affected cats., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Acanthamoeba spp. is a widespread protozoan that has been isolated from air, dust, soil, water and biological samples. An opportunistic pathogen of humans and animals, it may cause ocular keratitis, encephalitis, and even multisystem disease. The frequency of Acanthamoeba in animals is unknown. The aim of present study was determine the presence of Acanthamoeba spp. in immunocompromised stray cats - animals possibly more likely to harbour the infection given their immunocompromised status and frequenting of contaminated environments. Of 307 cats examined, 55 were positive for feline immunodeficiency virus and/or feline leukaemia virus and therefore included in the study. Corneal scrapings were obtained to isolate Acanthamoeba spp. by culture and molecular detection by conventional and real time PCR. None of the samples examined directly by molecular methods were positive for Acanthamoeba spp. However, two (3.6%) cases of the cultured samples provided positive results, which were confirmed by subsequent molecular analysis. Sequencing assigned one isolate to genotype T4 and the other to T2. Since Acanthamoeba spp. may also infect animals and humans, the present findings may raise some public health and veterinary concerns., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Chlamydia suis has been detected in numerous disease conditions of pigs, particularly in eye infections. This study examined recurring conjunctivitis cases in five commercial pig farms in Japan. 40.5% of the cases were identified as Chlamydia positive using impression cytology of ocular smears and a genus-specific direct fluorescent antibody. C. suis was detected in 59.5% of the samples using PCR tests targeting 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer region (ISR) and ompA gene. Genetic analysis of PCR amplicons revealed nine sequence variants of 16S-23S rRNA ISR and 20 sequence variants within ompA gene. Among C. suis-positive conjunctivitis cases, 36.4% showed concurrent infection with 2-4 varied ompA sequence types and 9.1% showed multiple 16S-23S rRNA ISR sequence types of C. suis. Multiple genotypes were found circulating in four of five farms. All 20 detected strains and 25 previously reported C. suis strains were grouped into four clusters. Japanese C. suis strains were closely related to American and European strains indicating wide distribution of these genetically variant strains. This study is the first to show multiple and genetically diverse C. suis strain associations in pig conjunctivitis., (© 2017 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Objectives Our objective was to perform the first multicentric study in Spain to evaluate the prevalence of feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydophila felis and Mycoplasma felis in cats with upper respiratory tract disease (URTD), conjunctivitis and/or gingivostomatitis (GS) compared with control cats; and to evaluate risk factors for these clinical conditions. Methods Conjunctival and oropharyngeal swabs were collected and a questionnaire regarding signalment, lifestyle, vaccination history and clinical signs was obtained for each cat. Swabs were tested for each pathogen by real-time PCR. Results The study population consisted of 358 cats, including 98 control cats. Among the 260 diseased cats, 127 cats presented with URTD, 149 cats had conjunctivitis, 154 cats were suffering GS; many cats presented more than one clinical condition. The prevalence observed of FHV-1, FCV, C felis and M felis was, respectively, 28.3%, 48.0%, 20.5% and 46.5% in cats with URTD; 24.2%, 43.6%, 19.5% and 38.3% in cats with conjunctivitis; and 15.6%, 58.4%, 9.1% and 37.7% in cats with GS. Prevalences in the control group were 6.1%, 15.3%, 2.0% and 20.4%, respectively. Coinfections were common among all groups of cats. Risk factors were identified for all groups. FHV-1, FCV and C felis were associated with URTD and conjunctivitis. FCV was strongly associated with GS. M felis was present in a high percentage of the population in all groups, but its role in these clinical conditions remains uncertain. Vaccination was protective for URTD and GS but not for conjunctivitis. Conclusions and relevance This epidemiological study describes, for the first time, prevalence for FHV-1, FCV, C felis and M felis in Spain. In general, the prevalences found are similar to those reported in other countries. Factors associated with disease expression were also identified, which are relevant for practitioners.

Mast cell infiltration occurs in malignant, inflammatory (eg, allergic, infectious), and idiopathic disease processes in humans and animals. Here, we describe the clinical and histological features of a unique proliferative conjunctivitis occurring in 15 cats. Ocular specimens were examined histologically, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for feline herpesvirus 1 (FHV-1) was performed on ocular tissues obtained from 10 cats. Cats had a median age of 8 years (range: 7 months-17.5 years). The known median duration of ocular lesions prior to biopsy was 4 months (range: 1 week-3 years). Ocular disease was unilateral in 12 cats, and 9 cats had coexisting corneal disease. Clinically and histologically, proliferative or nodular conjunctival lesions were noted in 13 cats. The nictitating membrane was affected in 10 cats. Histologically, lesions were characterized by mixed inflammatory infiltrates with an abundance of Giemsa-positive and toluidine blue-positive intraepithelial and subepithelial mast cells, marked edema, and papillary epithelial hyperplasia. Feline herpesvirus 1 was demonstrated by PCR in 1 of 10 cats tested. Follow-up information was available for 14 cats: 8 had no recurrence during a median follow-up period of 17.5 months (range: 4.5-30 months), 2 underwent orbital exenteration, 3 had recurrence that was medically managed, and 1 cat had diffuse conjunctivitis at the time of biopsy and recurrence was deemed irrelevant. Various ocular medications were administered before and after surgical biopsy. This condition was designated as feline epitheliotropic mastocytic conjunctivitis, with intraepithelial mast cells being an essential feature and papillary epithelial proliferation being characteristic but not diagnostic alone. The condition appears to be uncommon and benign. Although the cause is unknown, an allergic component is possible.

Chlamydia felis is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that infects cats, causing severe conjunctivitis associated with upper respiratory tract disease (URTD). In the present study, 186 cats from three non-commercial catteries in São Paulo, SP, Brazil were evaluated. The detection of Chlamydia felis was performed by PCR. The clinical severity was scored from 1 to 4, with a score of 4 as the most severe manifestation. The total occurrence of C. felis was of 18.82% (35/186) of cats overall, but notably, 58.06% (18/31) of infected cats originated from a single cattery. All animals harboring C. felis had URTD clinical signs and higher scores (3 and 4). In addition, C. felis occurrence was associated with the presence of cryptic plasmid. However, the virulence and clinical severity were not correlated., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To describe five cases of protozoal keratitis or conjunctivitis in dogs with chronic preexisting ocular surface disease treated with long-term immunosuppression., Animals Studied: Five dogs that developed corneal or conjunctival mass lesions., Procedures: The database of the Comparative Ocular Pathology Laboratory of Wisconsin was searched for canine cases diagnosed with corneal or conjunctival protozoal infection. Five cases were identified, and tissues were examined using routine and special histochemical stains: immunohistochemical labels for Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, and Leishmania spp., and tissue sample PCR for Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi, tissue coccidia (i.e., T. gondii/Sarcocystis/Neospora), piroplasms, trichomonads, and Acanthamoeba. Electron microscopy was performed for two cases, and serology for N. caninum and T. gondii was available for three cases., Results: Preexisting ocular diseases included keratoconjunctivitis sicca and pigmentary keratitis (n = 4) and pyogranulomatous meibomian adenitis (n = 1). All dogs were treated with tacrolimus or cyclosporine for at least 1.2 years. Dogs were presented with fleshy corneal or conjunctival masses that were clinically suspected to be neoplastic (n = 4) or immune mediated (n = 1). Histologic examination revealed granulomatous inflammation with intralesional protozoal organisms. Amoeba (n = 2), T. gondii (n = 2), or Leishmania mexicana (n = 1) were identified using molecular techniques. Serological tests were negative., Conclusions: Protozoal keratitis and conjunctivitis without systemic involvement appears rare and may be associated with chronic preexisting ocular surface disease treated with long-term immunosuppression. Based upon clinical appearance, lesions could be confused with neoplasia. This is the first report of amoebic keratoconjunctivitis in dogs and of L. mexicana in dogs in the United States., (© 2015 American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists.)

This report describes a 3-year-old female Doberman pinscher dog with ligneous conjunctivitis and a protein-losing nephropathy not associated with underlying plasminogen deficiency. Glomerulonephropathy in this circumstance had a positive outcome.

Dogs may develop a syndrome of spontaneous, inflammatory, pruritic dermatitis that shares many features with human atopic dermatitis, including a young age of onset, characteristic lesion distribution, immunoglobulin E sensitization to common environmental allergen sources, and evidence of epidermal barrier dysfunction. There are also several important differences between canine and human atopic dermatitis. Although dogs may suffer from multiple-organ hypersensitivity syndromes, there is no evidence that this species experiences the progressive evolution from cutaneous to respiratory allergy characteristic of the human atopic march. Despite the presence of epidermal barrier derangement, there is no significant association between canine atopic dermatitis and mutations in filaggrin. Finally, treatment of canine disease relies much less heavily on topical therapy than does its human counterpart, while allergy testing and allergen-specific immunotherapy provide an often essential component of effective clinical management of affected dogs., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: In captive breed turtles and tortoises conjunctival disease is common. Our aim was to investigate the bacterial and fungal flora present in the eyes of healthy and pathological chelonians and to compare findings in turtles with those in tortoises., Results: Samples were taken from the conjunctival sacs of 34, diseased and healthy, chelonians (18 tortoises and 16 turtles) and submitted to bacterial and fungal investigation. All samples showed bacterial growth. Thirteen animals (38%), harboured a single bacterial species as sole isolate and twenty-one animals (62%) harboured more than one species. Detection of multiple bacterial infection was clearly greater in tortoises compared to turtles. Most frequently isolated bacterial species were Bacillus spp. (13 isolates), Staphylococcus xylosus (10 isolates), Sphingomonas paucimobilis (6 isolates), Staphylococcus sciuri and Aeromonas hydrophila/caviae (each 5 isolates), Ochrobactrum anthropi (3 isolates), Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas luteola (each 2 isolates). Only one isolate of Kocuria varians/rosea, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus lentus, Morganella morganii, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella pneumotropica/haemolytica, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas putida, Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Vibrio parahaemolyticus was evidenced. The presence in 8 animals of Mycoplasma spp. and in 1 animal with severe conjunctivitis of Chlamydia spp. was detected by PCR. Candida spp. was also isolated from two healthy animals., Conclusions: A clear predominance of Gram positive isolates in tortoises and Gram negative isolates in turtles was found. However, we cannot ascribe the observed difference to the diversity of animal species, as other factors, including especially different characteristics of the living environments, may play a role. Almost all bacterial species isolated may have clinical significance, mostly as opportunistic pathogens, both for humans and animals. That chelonians are often carrier of bacteria with zoonotic potential is a well-known fact, in particular with regard to Salmonella spp. Therefore, it is not surprising the detection of a strain of Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae in the eye of one of the animals tested. Worthy of note is the finding of Chlamydia spp. in a severe case of conjunctivitis, though we cannot epidemiologically assess a cause-effect relationship between presence of chlamydia and disease.

Objectives: To assess the bacterial flora of the conjunctival sac in clinically healthy cats and cats with signs of conjunctivitis., Methods: A total of 324 conjunctival swabs were examined between 2011 and 2012 taken from 60 animals, 30 of which were clinically healthy and 30 with signs of chronic conjunctivitis. The samples were taken three times at 4-week intervals from the clinically healthy cats. The samples from the cats with conjunctivitis were taken before and 4 weeks after cessation of successful therapy. Swabs from both the right and left eye of each cat were subjected to microbiological examination and polymerase chain reaction for the presence of DNA of Chlamydophila felis and Mycoplasma felis., Results: There was no qualitative difference in the eye microflora between the clinically healthy animals and those with signs of conjunctivitis. Staphylococcus epidermidis (21 · 9%) was the most common microorganism isolated and it was more commonly detected in swabs from cats with conjunctivitis (P < 0 · 0001) as was Staphylococcus aureus (P = 0 · 07). The presence of C. felis was significantly correlated with (P < 0 · 0001) signs of conjunctivitis and was detected in 25% of swabs collected from both conjunctival sacs. No DNA of M. felis was detected in any swab. None of the animals had sterile conjunctival sacs in all consecutive bacteriological tests., Clinical Significance: The conjunctival sac in cats was sterile in over 50% of the clinically healthy cats and 25% of the cats with conjunctivitis. The sterility did not persist for longer than 4 weeks. Positive bacterial cultures occur in cats with and without clinical signs of conjunctivitis., (© 2014 British Small Animal Veterinary Association.)

Background: Despite the increasing number of reports of autochthonous cases of ocular thelaziosis in dogs in several European countries, and the evident emergence of human cases, the distribution and spreading potential of this parasite is far for being fully known. In Romania, despite intensive surveillance performed over recent years on the typical hosts of T. callipaeda, the parasite has not been found until now., Methods: In October 2014 a German Shepherd was presented for consultation to a private veterinary practice from western Romania with a history of unilateral chronic conjunctivitis. Following a close examination of the affected eye, nematodes were noticed in the conjunctival sac. The specimens collected were used for morphological examination (light microscopy) and molecular analysis (amplification of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene, followed by sequencing)., Results: Thirteen nematodes were collected, all identified morphologically as T. callipaeda. The history of the dog revealed no travel outside Romania, and during the last year, not even outside the home locality. The BLAST analysis of our sequence showed a 100% similarity T. callipaeda haplotype h1., Conclusions: This is the first report of T. callipaeda in Romania, which we consider to be with autochthonous transmission. These findings confirm the spreading trend of T callipaeda and the increased risk of emerging vector-borne zoonoses.

The aims of this work was documentation of the reactivity of feline conjunctival epithelial cells in chronic conjunctivitis and the investigation of a possible correlation of histological findings in conjunctiva with a limitation in detection of the pathogen. In this observational study, conjunctival swab samples collected from six cats suffering from chronic conjunctivitis were monitored for Chlamydophila spp. infection for one month, every ten days. Chlamydophilosis was diagnosed by conventional PCR, and confirmed by sequencing analysis. A lack of coherence with results in subsequent studies using PCR did not allow an accurate diagnosis. Additional bioptat samples of conjunctiva were collected for diagnostic purposes and stained in haematoxylin and eosin following the Giemsa method for light microscopic analysis. Additionally the samples were incubated for 15 min with IMAGEN Chlamydia conjugate (IMAGEN Chlamydia reagent kit, Dako, UK), allowing immunofluorescence detection of Chlamydophila spp. Within the epithelium an increased number of goblet cells, as well as general enlargement of the epithelium and a reduced number of normal epithelial cells, was observed. Only in areas of low epithelium could structures similar to the elementary bodies of Chlamydophila spp. be distinguished. The presented data document a possible limitation in molecular evidence for chlamydophila infection in some naturally infected cats, taking into account histological conditions in conjunctiva at the same time.

The microclimate can potentially impact the health and welfare of livestock exported by ship. Within-pen microclimatic conditions were recorded and the effects of ammonia on sheep behavior investigated on a voyage from Australia to the Middle East. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide as well as wet-bulb, dry-bulb, and dew-point temperature and air speed were mapped in 20 open-deck focal pens, with the focus on the behavior and location of a marked sheep in each pen. Air speed was highly variable in most pens, with pockets of high but transient concentrations of ammonia (30.7 to 44.2 mg/m(3)) in 20% of pens that had no or minimal air flow. Carbon dioxide concentrations varied in some pens, but overall concentrations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide were low. Sheep in pens previously identified to have high ammonia concentrations, high wet-bulb temperatures, and low wind speed stood longer (P = 0.003) and spent less time feeding (P = 0.01) and ruminating (P = 0.004) than those in pens previously identified with low ammonia, low wet-bulb temperature, and high wind speed. Moreover, sheep exposed to increased ammonia concentrations held their head higher (P = 0.004) to avoid the greater ammonia concentrations at lower heights, and these sheep had more conjunctivitis (P < 0.001). Sheep movement around the pen was limited. Increased time spent lying down (P = 0.04) and more rhythmical behavior in the second half of the voyage indicated that the sheep adjusted to shipboard conditions over time. It is concluded that high, transient concentrations of ammonia existed in some pens, which adversely affected the behavior of sheep.