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Microtia is a congenital malformation characterized by underdevelopment of the external ear. While chondrocyte dysfunction has been implicated in microtia, the specific cellular abnormalities remain poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate mitochondrial dysfunction in microtia chondrocytes using single-cell RNA sequencing. Cartilage samples were obtained from patients with unilateral, non-syndromic microtia and healthy controls. Single-cell RNA sequencing was performed using the 10 × Genomics platform. Bioinformatic analyses including cell type identification, trajectory analysis, and gene co-expression network analysis were conducted. Mitochondrial function was assessed through ROS levels, membrane potential, and transmission electron microscopy. Chondrocytes from microtia samples showed lower mitochondrial function scores compared to normal samples. Trajectory analysis revealed more disorganized differentiation patterns in microtia chondrocytes. Mitochondrial dysfunction in microtia chondrocytes was confirmed by increased ROS production, decreased membrane potential, and altered mitochondrial structure. Gene co-expression network analysis identified hub genes associated with mitochondrial function, including SDHA, SIRT1, and PGC1A, which showed reduced expression in microtia chondrocytes. This study provides evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in microtia chondrocytes and identifies potential key genes involved in this process. These findings offer new insights into the pathogenesis of microtia and may guide future therapeutic strategies., Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics approval and consent to participate: All procedures in this research were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital. The study followed the Declaration of Helsinki for ethical purposes, and all participants provided written informed consent. Consent for publication: Written informed consent was obtained by the patient., (© 2025. The Author(s).)

Microtia is a congenital auricle dysplasia with a high incidence and tissue engineering technology provides a promising strategy to reconstruct auricles. We previously described that the engineered cartilage constructed from microtia chondrocytes exhibited inferior levels of biochemical and biomechanical properties, which was proposed to be resulted of the decreased migration ability of microtia chondrocytes. In the current study, we found that Rho GTPase members were deficient in microtia chondrocytes. By overexpressing RhoA, Rac1, and CDC42, respectively, we further demonstrated that RhoA took great responsibility for the decreased migration ability of microtia chondrocytes. Moreover, we constructed PGA/PLA scaffold-based cartilages to verify the chondrogenic ability of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes, and the results showed that overexpressing RhoA was of limited help in improving the quality of microtia chondrocyte engineered cartilage. However, coculture of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) significantly improved the biochemical and biomechanical properties of engineered cartilage. Especially, coculture of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes and ADSCs produced an excellent effect on the wet weight, cartilage-specific extracellular matrix, and biomechanical property of engineered cartilage. Furthermore, we presented that coculture of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes and ADSCs combined with human ear-shaped PGA/PLA scaffold and titanium alloy stent fabricated by CAD/CAM and 3D printing technology effectively constructed and maintained auricle structure in vivo. Collectively, our results provide evidence for the essential role of RhoA in microtia chondrocytes and a developed strategy for the construction of patient-specific tissue-engineered auricular cartilage., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The human auricle has a complex structure, and microtia is a congenital malformation characterized by decreased size and loss of elaborate structure in the affected ear with a high incidence. Our previous studies suggest that inadequate cell migration is the primary cytological basis for the pathogenesis of microtia, however, the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here, we further demonstrate that microtia chondrocytes show a decreased directional persistence during cell migration. Directional persistence can define a leading edge associated with oriented movement, and any mistakes would affect cell function and tissue morphology. By the screening of motility-related genes and subsequent confirmations, active Rac1 (Rac1-GTP) is identified to be critical for the impaired directional persistence of microtia chondrocytes migration. Moreover, Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and Rho GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) are detected, and overexpression of Tiam1 significantly upregulates the level of Rac1-GTP and improves directional migration in microtia chondrocytes. Consistently, decreased expression patterns of Tiam1 and active Rac1 are found in microtia mouse models, Bmp5 se /J and Prkra lear -3J/GrsrJ. Collectively, our results provide new insights into microtia development and therapeutic strategies of tissue engineering for microtia patients., (© 2024 The Author(s). Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine published by Foundation for Cellular and Molecular Medicine and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Microtia is reported to be one of the most common congenital craniofacial malformations. Due to the complex etiology and the ethical barrier of embryonic study, the precise mechanisms of microtia remain unclear. Here we report a rare case of microtia with costal chondrodysplasia based on bioinformatics analysis and further verifications on other sporadic microtia patients., Results: One hundred fourteen deleterious insert and deletion (InDel) and 646 deleterious SNPs were screened out by WES, candidate genes were ranked in descending order according to their relative impact with microtia. Label-free proteomic analysis showed that proteins significantly different between the groups were related with oxidative stress and energy metabolism. By real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry, we further verified the candidate genes between other sporadic microtia and normal ear chondrocytes, which showed threonine aspartase, cadherin-13, aldolase B and adiponectin were significantly upregulated in mRNA levels but were significantly lower in protein levels. ROS detection and mitochondrial membrane potential (∆ Ψ m) detection proved that oxidative stress exists in microtia chondrocytes., Conclusions: Our results not only spot new candidate genes by WES and label-free proteomics, but also speculate for the first time that metabolism and oxidative stress may disturb cartilage development and this might become therapeutic targets and potential biomarkers with clinical usefulness in the future., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Elastic cartilage constitutes a major component of the external ear, which functions to guide sound to the middle and inner ears. Defects in auricle development cause congenital microtia, which affects hearing and appearance in patients. Mutations in several genes have been implicated in microtia development, yet, the pathogenesis of this disorder remains incompletely understood. Here, we show that Prrx1 genetically marks auricular chondrocytes in adult mice. Interestingly, BMP-Smad1/5/9 signaling in chondrocytes is increasingly activated from the proximal to distal segments of the ear, which is associated with a decrease in chondrocyte regenerative activity. Ablation of Bmpr1a in auricular chondrocytes led to chondrocyte atrophy and microtia development at the distal part. Transcriptome analysis revealed that Bmpr1a deficiency caused a switch from the chondrogenic program to the osteogenic program, accompanied by enhanced protein kinase A activation, likely through increased expression of Adcy5/8 . Inhibition of PKA blocked chondrocyte-to-osteoblast transformation and microtia development. Moreover, analysis of single-cell RNA-seq of human microtia samples uncovered enriched gene expression in the PKA pathway and chondrocyte-to-osteoblast transformation process. These findings suggest that auricle cartilage is actively maintained by BMP signaling, which maintains chondrocyte identity by suppressing osteogenic differentiation., Competing Interests: RY, HC, HY, ZZ, HL, BL No competing interests declared, YM Reviewing editor, eLife, (© 2023, Yang, Chu et al.)

Background: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) exosomes were previously shown to be effective in articular cartilage repairing. However, whether MSCs exosomes promote mature cartilage formation of microtia chondrocytes and the underlying mechanism of action remains unknown. Additionally, some hurdles, such as the low yield and unsatisfactory therapeutic effects of natural exosomes have emerged when considering the translation of exosomes-therapeutics to clinical practices or industrial production. Herein, we investigated the roles of human adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) exosomes in modulating microtia chondrocytes and the underlying mechanism of action. Special attention was also paid to the mass production and functional modification of ADSCs exosomes., Results: We firstly used porous gelatin methacryloyl (Porous Gelma) hydrogel with pores size of 100 to 200 μm for 3D culture of passage 2, 4 and 6 ADSCs (P2, P4 and P6 ADSCs, respectively), and obtained their corresponding exosomes (Exo 2, Exo 4 and Exo 6, respectively). In vitro results showed Exo 2 outperformed both Exo 4 and Exo 6 in enhancing cell proliferation and attenuating apoptosis. However, both Exo 4 and Exo 6 promoted chondrogenesis more than Exo 2 did. Small RNA sequencing results indicated Exo 4 was similar to Exo 6 in small RNA profiles and consistently upregulated PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Notably, we found hsa-miR-23a-3p was highly expressed in Exo 4 and Exo 6 compared to Exo 2, and they modulated microtia chondrocytes by transferring hsa-miR-23a-3p to suppress PTEN expression, and consequently to activate PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Then, we designed genetically engineered exosomes by directly transfecting agomir-23a-3p into parent P4 ADSCs and isolated hsa-miR-23a-3p-rich exosomes for optimizing favorable effects on cell viability and new cartilage formation. Subsequently, we applied the engineered exosomes to in vitro and in vivo tissue-engineered cartilage culture and consistently found that the engineered exosomes could enhance cell proliferation, attenuate apoptosis and promote cartilage regeneration., Conclusions: Taken together, the porous Gelma hydrogel could be applied to exosomes mass production, and functional modification could be achieved by selecting P4 ADSCs as parent cells and genetically modifying ADSCs. Our engineered exosomes are a promising candidate for tissue-engineered ear cartilage regeneration., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Fibrin gel-based scaffolds have promising potential for microtia reconstruction. Autologous chondrocytes and chondrocyte cell sheets are frequently used seed cell sources for cartilage tissue engineering. However, the aesthetic outcome of chondrocyte-based microtia reconstruction is still not satisfactory. In this study, we aimed to fabricate the chondrocytes/chondrocyte-microtissues laden fibrin gel auricular scaffold for microtia reconstruction. We designed a unique auricular mold that could fabricate a fibrin gel scaffold resembling human auricle anatomy. Primary chondrocytes were harvested from rabbit auricular cartilage, and chondrocyte cell sheets were developed. Chondrocyte-microtissues were prepared from the cell sheets. The mixture of chondrocytes/chondrocyte-microtissues was laden in fibrin gel during the auricular scaffold fabrication. The protrusions and recessed structure in the auricular scaffold surface were still clearly distinguishable. After a one-week in vitro culture, the 3 D structure and auricular anatomy of the scaffold were retained. And followed by eight-week subcutaneous implantation, cartilaginous tissue was regenerated in the artificial auricular structure as indicated by the results of H&E, Toluidine blue, Safranin O, and type II collagen (immunohistochemistry) staining. Protrusions and depressions of the auricular scaffold were slightly deformed, but the overall auricular anatomy was maintained after 8-week in vivo implantation. Extracellular matrix components content were similar in artificial auricular cartilage and rabbit native auricular cartilage. In conclusion, the mixture of chondrocytes/chondrocyte-microtissues laden fibrin gel auricular scaffold showed a promising potential for cartilaginous tissue regeneration, suggesting this as an effective approach for autologous chondrocyte-based microtia reconstruction.

Background: Microtia is a congenital malformation of the external ear that involves anything from a small reduction in size to a complete absence. The external ear is composed of elastic cartilage which is also the important skeleton of the outer ear. However no previous study explored the difference between abnormal elastic cartilage and normal cartilage in the molecular level., Methods: Microtia cartilage and normal cartilage tissue samples from patients subjected to autologous costal cartilage reconstruction were obtained in surgery. Total proteins were extracted and purified, and then proteomic analyzed via LC-MS/MS using DDA/DIA data collection methods. Proteins were also isolated with lysis beads and then analyzed via antibody chip. Differentially expressed proteins were identified in both experiments and further analyzed with functional enrichment analysis and KEGG pathway analysis. Valuable regulatory gene expression level was verified by RT-PCR., Results: A total of 4178 protein types were identified in the DDA experiment. A total of 2154 proteins were quantified, 172 of which were significantly upregulated and 82 downregulated in the microtia group (P < 0.05). Antibody chip detection allowed identification of 584 protein phosphorylation sites with 102 upregulation sites and 9 downregulation sites (P < 0.05). Differentially altered proteins were annotated to 143 KEGG pathways, while differentiated phosphate site-associated genes were annotated into 21 KEGG pathways. Two intersecting pathways, the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and the focal adhesion pathway, may paly important role on ear auricle cartilage development. One item is significant in both differential protein expression and phosphorylation. Integrin beta-1, that is downregulated in protein quantification of the microtia group. The mean ITGB1 mRNA level of the microtia patient group was significantly lower than in the healthy control group (P = 0.0007 < 0.05). And the gene expression of downstream gene PTK2 was also decreased. (P = 0.0288 < 0.05)., Conclusion: The research locates the key protein Integrin Beta-1, and verified it at the mRNA level. The increasing level of ITGB1 and decreasing of PTK2 may play an important role in congenital ear deformity. This research will inspire more otolaryngologists and orthopedics doctors to pay attention to the etiology and mechanism of microtia., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The earliest step in DNA replication is origin licensing, which is the DNA loading of minichromosome maintenance (MCM) helicase complexes. The Cdc10-dependent transcript 1 (Cdt1) protein is essential for MCM loading during the G1 phase of the cell cycle, but the mechanism of Cdt1 function is still incompletely understood. We examined a collection of rare Cdt1 variants that cause a form of primordial dwarfism (the Meier-Gorlin syndrome) plus one hypomorphic Drosophila allele to shed light on Cdt1 function. Three hypomorphic variants load MCM less efficiently than wild-type (WT) Cdt1, and their lower activity correlates with impaired MCM binding. A structural homology model of the human Cdt1-MCM complex positions the altered Cdt1 residues at two distinct interfaces rather than the previously described single MCM interaction domain. Surprisingly, one dwarfism allele ( Cdt1-A66T ) is more active than WT Cdt1. This hypermorphic variant binds both cyclin A and SCF Skp2 poorly relative to WT Cdt1. Detailed quantitative live-cell imaging analysis demonstrated no change in the stability of this variant, however. Instead, we propose that cyclin A/CDK inhibits the Cdt1 licensing function independent of the creation of the SCF Skp2 phosphodegron. Together, these findings identify key Cdt1 interactions required for both efficient origin licensing and tight Cdt1 regulation to ensure normal cell proliferation and genome stability.

Meier-Gorlin syndrome (MGS) is a genetically heterogeneous primordial dwarfism syndrome known to be caused by biallelic loss-of-function mutations in one of five genes encoding pre-replication complex proteins: ORC1, ORC4, ORC6, CDT1, and CDC6. Mutations in these genes cause disruption of the origin of DNA replication initiation. To date, only an autosomal-recessive inheritance pattern has been described in individuals with this disorder, with a molecular etiology established in about three-fourths of cases. Here, we report three subjects with MGS and de novo heterozygous mutations in the 5' end of GMNN, encoding the DNA replication inhibitor geminin. We identified two truncating mutations in exon 2 (the 1(st) coding exon), c.16A>T (p.Lys6(∗)) and c.35&#95;38delTCAA (p.Ile12Lysfs(∗)4), and one missense mutation, c.50A>G (p.Lys17Arg), affecting the second-to-last nucleotide of exon 2 and possibly RNA splicing. Geminin is present during the S, G2, and M phases of the cell cycle and is degraded during the metaphase-anaphase transition by the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which recognizes the destruction box sequence near the 5' end of the geminin protein. All three GMNN mutations identified alter sites 5' to residue Met28 of the protein, which is located within the destruction box. We present data supporting a gain-of-function mechanism, in which the GMNN mutations result in proteins lacking the destruction box and hence increased protein stability and prolonged inhibition of replication leading to autosomal-dominant MGS., (Copyright © 2015 The American Society of Human Genetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Previously, we had addressed the issues of shape control/maintenance of in vitro engineered human-ear-shaped cartilage. Thus, lack of applicable cell source had become a major concern that blocks clinical translation of this technology. Autologous microtia chondrocytes (MCs) and bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) were both promising chondrogenic cells that did not involve obvious donor site morbidity. However, limited cell availability of MCs and ectopic ossification of chondrogenically induced BMSCs in subcutaneous environment greatly restricted their applications in external ear reconstruction. The current study demonstrated that MCs possessed strong proliferation ability but accompanied with rapid loss of chondrogenic ability during passage, indicating a poor feasibility to engineer the entire ear using expanded MCs. Fortunately, the co-transplantation results of MCs and BMSCs (25% MCs and 75% BMSCs) demonstrated a strong chondroinductive ability of MCs to promote stable ectopic chondrogenesis of BMSCs in subcutaneous environment. Moreover, cell labeling demonstrated that BMSCs could transform into chondrocyte-like cells under the chondrogenic niche provided by co-cultured MCs. Most importantly, a human-ear-shaped cartilaginous tissue with delicate structure and proper elasticity was successfully constructed by seeding the mixed cells (MCs and BMSCs) into the pre-shaped biodegradable ear-scaffold followed by 12 weeks of subcutaneous implantation in nude mouse. These results may provide a promising strategy to construct stable ectopic cartilage with MCs and stem cells (BMSCs) for autologous external ear reconstruction., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)