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How can we teach machine learning to identify causal patterns in data? This book explores the very notion of “causality”, identifying from a naturalistic and evolutionary perspective how living systems deal with causal relationships. At the same time, using this knowledge to identify the best ways to apply such biological models in machine learning scenarios. One of the more fundamental challenges for AI experts is to design machines that can understand the world, identifying the basic rules that govern reality. Statistics are powerful and fundamental for this process, but they are only one of the necessary tools. Counterfactual thinking is the other part of the necessary process that will help machines to become intelligent. This book explains the paths that can lead to algorithmic causality. It is essential reading for those who are not afraid of thinking at the interface of various academic disciplines or fields (AI, machine learning, philosophy, neuroscience, anthropology, psychology, computer sciences), and who are interested in the analysis of causal thinking and the ways in which cognitive systems (natural or artificial) can act in order to understand their environment. Professor Vallverdú is currently working on biomimetic cognitive architectures and multicognitive systems. His research has explored two main areas: epistemology and cognition. Since his early Ph.D. research on epistemic controversies, he has analyzed several aspects of computational epistemology. His latest research has focused on the causal challenges of machine learning techniques, particularly deep learning. One of his most promising advances is statistics meets causal graph reasoning (via Directed Acyclic Graphs), which still has several conceptual paths that need to be explored and identified. Counterfactual reasoning is a fundamental part of these open debates, which are under the analysis of Prof. Vallverdú. His current research is supported as part of the following projects: GEHUCT and ICREA Acadèmia.

This project was motivated by the upcoming fiftieth anniversary of the IFIP Human Choice and Computers (HCC) conference, the event that led to IFIP's Technical Committee 9 (TC 9). Although IFIP committees are mainly technical, TC 9 is dedicated to research at the intersection of information and communication technology (ICT) with society. In addition to sponsoring HCC, TC 9 supports groups that have specific research interests. In consultation with their members, the leaders of each group offer chapters about their groups'history and goals. An additional chapter describes TC 9's formation, and an appendix details the national groups that work closely with TC 9. Overall, this volume is a useful guide to the historical development of research on ICT and society, providing readers with important reference works and relevant themes, and also points to likely new trends in these domains.

This textbook presents a fascinating review of cryptography and cryptanalysis, from the earliest known cryptographic systems of 2,500 years ago up to modern computer-based systems. The text relates the earliest use of the monoalphabetic cipher in the ancient world, the development of the “unbreakable” Vigenère cipher, and an account of how cryptology entered the arsenal of military intelligence during the American Revolutionary War. Moving on to the American Civil War, the book explains the solution of the Vigenère ciphers used by the Confederates and the use of telegraph codes, before investigating the development of cipher machines throughout World War I and II, including development of the first digital computer, Colossus. The exposition then explores cryptology in the computer age, from public-key cryptography and web security to criminal cyber-attacks and cyber-warfare. The role of cryptography in the Internet of Things is also discussed, along with the potential impact of quantum computing. Topics and features: Presents a history of cryptology from ancient Rome to the present day, with a focus on cryptology in the 20th and 21st centuries Provides engaging examples illustrating use of cryptographic algorithms in different historical periods Reviews algorithms and devices used to create secret messages, and the various methods for breaking such messages Describes notable contributions to cryptology by Herbert Yardley, William and Elizebeth Smith Friedman, Lester Hill, Agnes Meyer Driscoll, and Claude Shannon Examines unsolved mysteries in cryptology, such as the Voynich Manuscript, the Beale Ciphers, the Kryptos sculpture, and the Zodiac killer ciphers This engaging work is ideal as both a primary text for courses on the history of cryptology, and as a supplementary text for advanced undergraduate courses on cryptology and computer security. No prior background in mathematics is assumed, beyond what would be encountered in an introductory course on discrete mathematics.

Although difficult, change in academic structures is necessary today, especially in fast-changing fields today such as biology, computing, management, the social sciences, and others. This includes changes within existing organizations as well as creation of new structures and reorganizations or eliminations of older ones. This narrative attempts first to document the historical rise of an organization, Georgia Tech's College of Computing, that has touched and successfully changed the lives of thousands of people. Second, it aims to identify and explicate some of what has led to this widely acknowledged success. The book provides a chronological narrative that highlights major changes taken under each successive leader. These changes have built on one another, knowingly or otherwise, to create a growing organization that rivals in size and prominence longer established parts of the university. The case study, while of an academic organization focused on computing, provides general lessons applicable almost anywhere. Topics and features: Discusses the nature and uses of visions, both general and specificShows how visions can be used to drive specific actions and resource allocationsIllustrates the choice and use of enduring organizational principlesOutlines a simple strategic-planning method and its applicationIndicates results of this overall approach This book will be of interest to anyone interested in organizational change, especially in academia, and to those interested in Georgia Tech. It will also appeal to policymakers in education, government, and industry; as well as anyone interested in the historical growth of the computing milieu broadly. Peter A. Freeman was Founding Dean and Professor in the College of Computing at Georgia Tech from 1990 to 2002. Today he is an Emeritus Dean and Professor.

This book describes the groundbreaking work of Chaim Leib Pekeris and his collaborators. Between 1955 and 1963 they used the first electronic computer built in Israel, the Weizmann Automatic Computer (WEIZAC), to develop powerful numerical methods that helped achieve new and accurate solutions of the Boltzmann equation, calculate energy levels of the helium atom, produce detailed geophysical and seismological models derived from the study of the free oscillations of the earth, and refine models used to predict meteorological phenomena and global oceanic tides. This book provides a unique account of the pioneering work of Chaim L. Pekeris in applied mathematics and explains in detail the background to the rise of the Weizmann Institute as a world-class center of scientific excellence. This hitherto untold story is of great interest to historians of twentieth-century science with special emphasis on the application of computer-assisted numerical methods in various branches of mathematical physics.

This third book in the three-part series on the History of the GPU covers the second to sixth eras of the GPU, which can be found in anything that has a display or screen. The GPU is now part of supercomputers, PCs, Smartphones and tablets, wearables, game consoles and handhelds, TVs, and every type of vehicle including boats and planes. In the early 2000s the number of GPU suppliers consolidated to three whereas now, the number has expanded to almost 20. In 2022 the GPU market was worth over $250 billion with over 2.2 billion GPUs being sold just in PCs, and more than 10 billion in smartphones. Understanding the power and history of these devices is not only a fascinating tale, but one that will aid your understanding of some of the developments in consumer electronics, computers, new automobiles, and your fitness watch.

This is the second book in a three-part series that traces the development of the GPU, which is defined as a single chip with an integrated transform and lighting (T&L) capability. This feature previously was found in workstations as a stand-alone chip that only performed geometry functions. Enabled by Moore's law, the first era of GPUs began in the late 1990s.Silicon Graphics (SGI) introduced T&L first in 1996 with the Nintendo 64 chipset with integrated T&L but didn't follow through. ArtX developed a chipset with integrated T&L but didn't bring it to market until November 1999.The need to integrate the transform and lighting functions in the graphics controller was well understood and strongly desired by dozens of companies. Nvidia was the first to produce a PC consumer level single chip with T&L in October 1999. All in all, fifteen companies came close, they had designs and experience, but one thing or another got in their way to prevent them succeeding.All the forces and technology were converging; the GPU was ready to emerge. Several of the companies involved did produce an integrated GPU, but not until early 2000. This is the account of those companies, the GPU and the environment needed to support it. The GPU has become ubiquitous and can be found in every platform that involves a computer and a user interface.

Die moderne Informationstechnologie durchdringt und verändert unsere Welt – weit mehr und intensiver, als die meisten von uns ahnen. Das Buch beschreibt ihre Entstehung, ihre Geschichte, ihre wesentlichen Treiber und welche herausragende Bedeutung die neue Weltmacht IT für unser soziales, wirtschaftliches und politisches Leben erlangt hat. Es bietet dem Leser auf interessante, allgemeinverständliche und ausgewogene Weise Orientierung zu einem komplexen Thema, das unsere Gegenwart und Zukunft wesentlich prägt. Es zeigt die großen Entwicklungslinien und erklärt dabei auch, was es etwa mit Künstlicher Intelligenz, Algorithmen oder Blockchains auf sich hat.

Seit Beginn dessen, was man Philosophie nennt – also dem Zeitalter der Vorsokratiker – haben große Geister sich bemüht, den Dualismus Geist-Materie zu überwinden und Erkenntnis auf eine einzige, eindeutige Quelle zurück zu führen – dem Ding-an-sich. Diese Entwicklung wird in diesem Buch nachverfolgt – bis hin zu den modernen Instrumenten der Datenhaltung und der künstlichen Intelligenz. Im Internet of Things schließlich werden Informationen und Objekte wieder zu einer einzigen Entität verschmolzen. Liegt da vielleicht die Lösung nach der Suche des Ding-an-sich?

Daten sind das neue Gold - und neuronale Netze haben bereits einigen Unternehmen geholfen, diesen Schatz auszugraben. Verschaffen Sie sich mit diesem Buch innerhalb kürzester Zeit einen soliden Überblick über neuronale Netze. Nach der Lektüre dieses Buches kennen Sie den historischen Werdegang dieser leistungsfähigen Approximatoren und Sie sind vertraut mit den aktuell wichtigsten Begriffen. Des Weiteren kennen Sie die Möglichkeiten sowie die Grenzen neuronaler Netze. Dieses Buch richtet sich in erster Linie an Praktiker, die einen schnellen Einstieg in das Thema suchen, ohne parallel einen Hochschulkurs in Mathematik und Statistik zu machen.

Die Verschlüsselungstechnik (Kryptologie) hat eine spannende Geschichte. Sie ist geprägt dramatischen Begebenheiten, genialen Codeknackern und ungelösten Rätseln. Das Voynich-Manuskript – ein verschlüsseltes Buch aus dem Mittelalter – fasziniert genauso wie die Verschlüsselungsmaschine Enigma oder der berüchtigte Zodiac-Killer. Klaus Schmeh hat aus der umfangreichen Geschichte dieser Wissenschaft die spannendsten Episoden ausgewählt und erzählt sie in mitreißender Weise.

Fifty years after the first experiments in computational art, international interest in the history of this subject remains strong and at the same time almost uncovered. This book began with the exhibition Algorithmic Signs, which was conceived, researched and curated by Francesca Franco in Venice in 2017. The origins of the exhibition included a series of meetings that gathered together the most celebrated international pioneers in the world of digital arts and the rare opportunity to interview them in their studios.Francesca Franco explores the history of computer art and its contribution to the broader field of contemporary art from the 1960s to the present. It is illustrated by the creative work of five of the most influential pioneers of computer art - Ernest Edmonds, Manfred Mohr, Vera Molnár, Frieder Nake, and Roman Verostko and includes the full visual documentation of the exhibition.The Algorithmic Dimension - Five Artists in Conversation offersmore than a theoretical perspective; it offers readers the rare opportunity to hear the histories and developments of the fascinating art, created through the algorithm, in an accessible and stimulating narrative. The personal achievements of each artist are followed, including their original inspirations, and how they develop in parallel with technological advances. It also brings together for the first time the artists'common ideas and differences, and tales about how their paths have crossed over the years.

The main aim of the book is to give a review of all relevant information regarding a well-known and important problem of Feedback Arc Set (FAS). This review naturally also includes a history of the problem, as well as specific algorithms. To this point such a work does not exist: There are sources where one can find incomplete and perhaps untrustworthy information. With this book, information about FAS can be found easily in one place: formulation, description, theoretical background, applications, algorithms etc. Such a compendium will be of help to people involved in research, but also to people that want to quickly acquaint themselves with the problem and need reliable information. Thus research, professional work and learning can proceed in a more streamlined and faster way.

Es ist für Fachleute wie Laien immer wieder überraschend, wie die Errungenschaften der Informatik das Leben der Menschen verbessern können, manchmal sogar in Richtungen, welche die Menschen gar nicht unbedingt wünschen. Die aus der Zeitschrift Informatik Spektrum stammenden Glossen in diesem Buch beschreiben kurzweilig und mit viel Humor viele solcher Errungenschaften: Wie sie entstehen, weshalb sie vielleicht doch nicht so groß sind und was noch auf uns zukommt.Eine amüsante Lektüre für Informatiker und ihre gequälten Anwender.

This stimulating text/reference presents a philosophical exploration of the conceptual foundations of deep learning, presenting enlightening perspectives that encompass such diverse disciplines as computer science, mathematics, logic, psychology, and cognitive science. The text also highlights select topics from the fascinating history of this exciting field, including the pioneering work of Rudolf Carnap, Warren McCulloch, Walter Pitts, Bulcsú László, and Geoffrey Hinton.Topics and features:Provides a brief history of mathematical logic, and discusses the critical role of philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience in the history of AIPresents a philosophical case for the use of fuzzy logic approaches in AIInvestigates the similarities and differences between the Word2vec word embedding algorithm, and the ideas of Wittgenstein and Firth on linguisticsExamines how developments in machine learning provide insights into the philosophical challenge of justifying inductive inferencesDebates, with reference to philosophical anthropology, whether an advanced general artificial intelligence might be considered as a living beingInvestigates the issue of computational complexity through deep-learning strategies for understanding AI-complete problems and developing strong AIExplores philosophical questions at the intersection of AI and transhumanismThis inspirational volume will rekindle a passion for deep learning in those already experienced in coding and studying this discipline, and provide a philosophical big-picture perspective for those new to the field.

This book gathers, and makes available in English, with new introductions, previously out of print or otherwise difficult to access articles by Fr Roberto Busa S.J. (1913 - 2011). Also included is a comprehensive bibliography of Busa, an oral history interview with Busa's translator, and a substantial new chapter that evaluates Busa's contributions and intellectual legacies. The result is a groundbreaking book that is of interest to digital humanists and computational linguists as well as historians of science, technology and the humanities. As the application of computing to cultural heritage becomes ever more ubiquitous, new possibilities for transmitting, shaping, understanding, questioning and even imagining the human record are opening up. Busa is considered by many to be among the pioneers in this field, and his research on projects like the Index Thomisticus is one of the earliest known examples of a humanities project that incorporated automation; it continues to be widely cited and used today. Busa published more than 350 academic articles and shorter pieces in numerous languages, but despite the unquestionable importance of his early work for understanding the history and development of fields like humanities computing and computational linguistics, a large part of his canon and thinking remained inaccessible or difficult to access until this book.

This book constitutes the refereed post-conference proceedings of the IFIP WG 9.7 International Workshop on the History of Computing, HC 2018, Held at the 24th IFIP World Computer Congress, WCC 2018, in Poznań, Poland, in September 2018.The 16 revised full papers were carefully reviewed and selected from 20 submissions. They reflect academic approaches to history along with the expertise of museum and other public history professionals as well as the experience of computingand information science practitioners. The papers are organized in the following sections: Eastern Europe, Poland, Soviet Union, CoCom and Comecon; analog computing, and public history.

This text presents an historical examination of political fact-checking, highlighting how this is part of a larger phenomenon of online scrutiny that manifests itself in multiple forms. Reflecting the long history of “fake facts” in America, the book discusses important developments in this area from the emergence of the public Internet in the 1990s to the start of the Trump-Clinton presidential election campaigns.Topics and features: describes how some of the major players in political fact-checking began with the purpose of scrutinizing and debunking of urban legends; considers how this was part of a wider culture, encompassing B-grade horror movies, truth-or-fiction television shows, and groups warning about computer viruses; explains how such developments are connected, revealing political fact-checking as one of many forms of scrutiny applied in the face of a complex, dangerous world; provides a range of detailed case studies, covering such topics as the rumors surrounding the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and academic interest in contemporary legends; discusses how pre-Internet technologies such as bulletin boards, Usenet, and proprietary online service providers such as CompuServe and AOL were used to both disseminate and debunk urban legends; examines the rise of political fact-checking, reviewing all of the major initiatives in this area undertaken in the United States.This timely study touches on issues of popular culture and major events, and offers profiles of colorful individuals and organizations, and as such will appeal to a broad audience interested in the history of fact-checking and efforts to protect the political process from falsehoods.

This book presents a historical and philosophical analysis of programming systems, intended as large computational systems like, for instance, operating systems, programmed to control processes. The introduction to the volume emphasizes the contemporary need of providing a foundational analysis of such systems, rooted in a broader historical and philosophical discussion. The different chapters are grouped around three major themes. The first concerns the early history of large systems developed against the background of issues related to the growing semantic gap between hardware and code. The second revisits the fundamental issue of complexity of large systems, dealt with by the use of formal methods and the development of `grand designs'like Unix. Finally, a third part considers several issues related to programming systems in the real world, including chapters on aesthetical, ethical and political issues. This book will interest researchers from a diversityof backgrounds. It will appeal to historians, philosophers, as well as logicians and computer scientists who want to engage with topics relevant to the history and philosophy of programming and more specifically the role of programming systems in the foundations of computing.

This book recounts the adventures of Louis Pouzin who invented one of the core elements for transmitting data over today's Internet, the datagram. He also created one of the most widely used computer programming languages, the Shell; and is currently, at age 88, a leader in the development of a new Internet, RINA.Louis Pouzin is not well known in his own country, France, but is acclaimed by his peers internationally. He was ignored in France for years although he is one of the very few French scientists who has met Queen Elizabeth II three times. This lack of appreciation on the part of the French public is also due to the fact that, despite the motto “publish or perish” current in scientific circles, he has an impressive list of scientific publications but only one book in English, to present his incredible achievement carried out with an exceptional team: the Cyclades project.This book is the story of a life anda team. It is the journey of a visionary intellectual who has always been one step ahead and has fully adapted to the 21st century though born into a very modest family in a small village in central France at the beginning of the 20th century… What makes Louis Pouzin so special is that he is a leader and decision-maker who knows how to attract the right people to get projects done. He never admits defeat, even when short-sighted politicians absurdly order him to scrap his breakthroughs.In its making, this book which is written for everyone interested in the true history of the Web, has strictly respected the basic rules of any journalistic investigation: interviews with those who made history, cross-referencing of sources, and documentary research.

This is the first comprehensive history of human-computer interaction (HCI). Whether you are a user-experience professional or an academic researcher, whether you identify with computer science,human factors, information systems, information science, design, or communication, you can discover how your experiences fit into the expanding field of HCI. You can determine where to look for relevant information in other fields—and where you won't find it.This book describes the different fields that have participated in improving our digital tools.It is organized chronologically, describing major developments across fields in each period. Computer use has changed radically, but many underlying forces are constant. Technology has changed rapidly, human nature very little. An irresistible force meets an immovable object. The exponential rate of technological change gives us little time to react before technology moves on. Patterns and trajectories described in this book provide yourbest chance to anticipate what could come next.We have reached a turning point. Tools that we built for ourselves to use are increasingly influencing how we use them, in ways that are planned and sometimes unplanned. The book ends with issues worthy of consideration as we explore the new world that we and our digital partners are shaping.

This stimulating textbook presents a broad and accessible guide to the fundamentals of discrete mathematics, highlighting how the techniques may be applied to various exciting areas in computing. The text is designed to motivate and inspire the reader, encouraging further study in this important skill. Features: provides an introduction to the building blocks of discrete mathematics, including sets, relations and functions; describes the basics of number theory, the techniques of induction and recursion, and the applications of mathematical sequences, series, permutations, and combinations; presents the essentials of algebra; explains the fundamentals of automata theory, matrices, graph theory, cryptography, coding theory, language theory, and the concepts of computability and decidability; reviews the history of logic, discussing propositional and predicate logic, as well as advanced topics; examines the field of software engineering, describing formal methods; investigates probability and statistics.

This book contains revised selected papers presented at the IFIP WG 9.7 International Conference on the History of Computing, HC 2016, held in Brooklyn, NY, USA, in May 2016.The 13 full papers included in this volume were carefully reviewed and selected from numerous submissions. The papers cover a wide range of topics related to the history of computing and focus on the history of pre-existing relationships and communities that led to triumphs (and dead-ends) in the history of computing. This broad perspective helps to tell a more accurate story of important developments like the Internet and provide a better understanding of how to sponsor future invention and innovation. They reflect on histories that foreground the international community along four broad themes: invention, policy, infrastructure, and social history.

This volume constitutes the refereed post-conference proceedings of the Third International Conference on the History and Philosophy of Computing, held in Pisa, Italy in October 2015.The 18 full papers included in this volume were carefully reviewed and selected from the 30 papers presented at the conference. They cover topics ranging from the world history of computing to the role of computing in the humanities and the arts.

This book constitutes the refereed post-proceedings of the 4th IFIP WG 9.7 Conference on the History of Nordic Computing, HiNC 4, held in Copenhagen, Denmark, in August 2014. The 37 revised full papers were carefully reviewed and selected for inclusion in this volume. The papers focus on innovative ICT milestones that transformed the nordic societies and on the new ideas, systems and solutions that helped creating the welfare societies of today, in particular solutions and systems for public services, e.g., tax, social benefits, health care and education; solutions and systems for the infrastructure of the society, e.g., banking, insurance, telephones, transport and energy supply; and technologies and IT policies behind the major IT milestones, e.g., user centric innovation, programming techniques and IT ethics. They are organized in topical sections on IT policy, infrastructure, public services, private services, telesystems, health care, IT in banking, transport and IT technology.

This book is a collection of refereed invited papers on the history of computing in education from the 1970s to the mid-1990s presenting a social history of the introduction and early use of computers in schools. The 30 papers deal with the introduction of computer in schools in many countries around the world: Norway, South Africa, UK, Canada, Australia, USA, Finland, Chile, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Ireland, Israel and Poland. The authors are not professional historians but rather people who as teachers, students or researchers were involved in this history and they narrate their experiences from a personal perspective offering fascinating stories.

Die bisher aufgetretenen Grundbegriffe lassen sich folgendermaßen zusammenfassen: Nachrichten haben Träger und Form; durch Interpretation gewinnt man aus ihnen Informationen. Sie werden in der Informatik durch Algorithmen verarbeitet. Ein Al­ gorithmus ist ein spezieller Typ von Nachricht. Er ist syntaktisch exakt beschrieben in einer Befehlssprache, deren Semantik auf eine Struktur von Operationen auf Mengen von Werten von Objekten abbildet. Die Befehlssprache wird auf unterster Sprache­ bene durch Ausführung interpretiert, während sie auf höherer Sprachebene in eine primitivere Sprache übersetzt wird. Semantik und Syntax der Befehlssprache müssen wegen der maschinellen Übersetzung und Interpretation regelhaft formuliert sein. Deshalb werden im Kapitel 4 formale Sprachen exakter eingeführt und genauer untersucht. Dabei wird die Rolle von meta­ sprachlichen Algorithmen zur Festlegung von Syntax und Semantik einer formalen Sprache deutlich. Deshalb kann man formale Sprachen, auch wenn sie nicht Befehls­ sprachen sind, nur unter Benutzung von Algorithmen beschreiben. Der Algorithmus­ begriff führt also zurück zu den formalen Sprachen und diese wiederum lassen sich nur mit Algorithmen (in Metasprache) darstellen. Das Vorgehen im Kapitel 4 wird vermutlich dem Leser etwas übertrieben abstrakt vor­ kommen. Der Grund ist, daß absolute Exaktheit in formalen Konstruktionen geübt werden soll. Zu exakten Konstruktionen in der Informatik benötigt man natürlich auch Grundelemente der exakten Wissenschaft par excellence, nämlich der Mathe­ matik. Dies wird hier aber lediglich als eine Erweiterung der Metasprache um ei­ nige hilfreiche Begriffskonstruktionen aufgefaßt. Deshalb werden die mathematischen Grundbegriffe im Kapitel 3 kurz zusammengestellt; dieseskann von mathematisch ausreichend vorgebildeten Lesern übersprungen werden.

This book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-conference proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Membrane Computing, CMC 2012, held in Budapest, Hungary, in August 2012. The 21 revised selected papers presented together with 6 invited lectures were carefully reviewed and selected from 25 papers presented at the conference. The book also deals with membrane systems, also called P systems, which are distributed and parallel algebraic models processing multisets of objects in a localized manner (evolution rules and evolving objects are encapsulated into compartments delimited by membranes), with an essential role played by the communication among compartments and with the environment.

This book constitutes the refereed post-proceedings of the IFIP WG 9.7 International Conference on the History of Computing, HC 2013, held in London, UK, in June 2013. The 29 revised full papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from numerous submissions. The papers cover a wide range of topics related to the history of computing and offer a number of different approaches to making this history relevant. These range from discussion of approaches to describing and analyzing the history through storytelling and education to description of various collections, working installations and reconstruction projects. The papers have been organized in the following topical sections: the importance of storytelling in museums; spotlight on some key collections and their future plans; thoughts on expanding the audience for computing history; spotlight on some research projects; integrating history with computer science education; putting the history of computing into different contexts;celebrating nostalgia for games - and its potential as Trojan horse; the importance and challenges of working installations; and reconstruction stories.

s a competitor of the Deep Blue team, I had mixed emotions as I A watched their chess-playing machine defeat World Chess Cham­ pion Garry Kasparov during their 1997 Rematch. On the one hand, it meant that our MIT program, •Socrates, would not be the first program to defeat a human World Chess Champion. On the other hand, I felt great admiration for the monumental engineering accomplishment that Deep Blue's victory represented, and proud for the small part that my own team had played in advancing computer-chess research. After over 50 years of concerted effort to produce a chess-playing machine capable of beating the best human, Deep Blue finally attained the goal that so many computer scientists had sought. In this entertaining and informative book, Monty Newborn chronicles the story of Deep Blue, from its origins as Chiptest at Carnegie Mellon University to its winning the Rematch as a top IBM research project. You do not have to be a chess player or a computer scientist to enjoy this marvelous tale of man and machine. Monty paints the characters of this drama in vivid colors, from the technical geniuses CB Hsu, Murray Camp­ bell, and Thomas Anantharaman to the visionary manager CJ Tan. As only an insider can, Monty recreates the excitement of the event, including the IBM marketing hype and the marvelous compendium of editorial cartoons.

To examine, analyze, and manipulate a problem to the point of designing an algorithm for solving it is an exercise of fundamental value in many fields. With so many everyday activities governed by algorithmic principles, the power, precision, reliability and speed of execution demanded by users have transformed the design and construction of algorithms from a creative, artisanal activity into a full-fledged science in its own right. This book is aimed at all those who exploit the results of this new science, as designers and as consumers. The first chapter is an overview of the related history, demonstrating the long development of ideas such as recursion and more recent formalizations such as computability. The second chapter shows how the design of algorithms requires appropriate techniques and sophisticated organization of data. In the subsequent chapters the contributing authors present examples from diverse areas – such as routing and networking problems, Web search, information security, auctions and games, complexity and randomness, and the life sciences – that show how algorithmic thinking offers practical solutions and also deepens domain knowledge. The contributing authors are top-class researchers with considerable academic and industrial experience; they are also excellent educators and communicators and they draw on this experience with enthusiasm and humor. This book is an excellent introduction to an intriguing domain and it will be enjoyed by undergraduate and postgraduate students in computer science, engineering, and mathematics, and more broadly by all those engaged with algorithmic thinking.

-Ecclesiastes 12:12 Programs are invariably subjected to many rorms or transrormation. After an initial version of a program has been designed and developed, it undergoes debugging and certification. In addition, most long-lived pro­ grams have a liCe-cycle that includes modifications to meet amended specifications and extensions for expanded capabilities. Such evolution­ ary aspects of programming are the topic of this monograph. We present rormal methods for manipulating programs and illustrate their applica­ tion with numerous examples. Such methods could be incorporated in semi-automated programming environments, where they would serve to ease the burden on the programmer. We begin by describing a method whereby a given program that achieves one goal can be modified to achieve a different goal or a pro­ gram that computes wrong results can be debugged to achieve the 2 Preface intended results. The abstraction of a set of cognate programs to obtain a program schema, and the instantiation of abstract schemata to solve concrete problems, are approached from the same perspective. In addition, we describe synthesis rules for generating code from specifications and annotation rules for making assertions about code. The synthesis rules may be used when a program is first being developed, or when, in the course of modifying a program, the need arises to rewrite a program segment. Annotation rules may be used for the purpose of determining what an incorrect program really does before attempting to debug it or how a correct program works before attempting to modify it.

This book is a collection of refereed invited papers on the history of computing from the 1940s to the 1990s with one paper going back to look at Italian calculating/computing machines from the first century to the 20th century. The 22 papers cover a wide range of computing related topics such as specific early computer systems, their construction, their use and their users; software programming and operating systems; people involved in the theory, design and use of these computers; computer education; and conservation of computing technology. Many of the authors were actually involved in the events they describe and share their specific reflections on the history of computing.

This book contains a collection of thoroughly refereed papers derived from the First IFIP WG 9.7 Conference on Soviet and Russian Computing, held in Petrozavodsk, Russia, in July 2006. The 32 revised papers were carefully selected from numerous submissions; many of them were translated from Russian. They reflect much of the shining history of computing activities within the former Soviet Union from its origins in the 1950s with the first computers used for military decision-making problems up to the modern period where Russian ICT grew substantially, especially in the field of custom-made programming.

This book constitutes the proceedings of the 7th International and Interdisciplinary Conference on Modeling and Using Context, CONTEXT 2011, held in Karlsruhe, Germany in September 2011. The 17 full papers and 7 short papers presented were carefully reviewed and selected from 54 submissions. In addition the book contains two keynote speeches and 8 poster papers. They cover cutting-edge results from the wide range of disciplines concerned with context, including the cognitive sciences (linguistics, psychology, philosophy, computer science, neuroscience), the social sciences and organization sciences, and all application areas.

The papers in this volume comprise the refereed proceedings of the conference ‘ Artificial Intelligence in Theory and Practice'(IFIP AI 2008), which formed part of the 20th World Computer Congress of IFIP, the International Federation for Information Processing (WCC-2008), in Milan, Italy in September 2008. The conference is organised by the IFIP Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence (Technical Committee 12) and its Working Group 12.5 (Artificial Intelligence Applications). All papers were reviewed by at least two members of our Program Committee. Final decisions were made by the Executive Program Committee, which comprised John Debenham (University of Technology, Sydney, Australia), Ilias Maglogiannis (University of Aegean, Samos, Greece), Eunika Mercier-Laurent (KIM, France) and myself. The best papers were selected for the conference, either as long papers (maximum 10 pages) or as short papers (maximum 5 pages) and are included in this volume. The international nature of IFIP is amply reflected in the large number of countries represented here. The conference also featured invited talks by Prof. Nikola Kasabov (Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand) and Prof. Lorenza Saitta (University of Piemonte Orientale, Italy). I should like to thank the conference chair, John Debenham for all his efforts and the members of our program committee for reviewing papers to a very tight deadline.

The Heinz Nixdorf Museum Forum (HNF) is the world's largest c- puter museum and is dedicated to portraying the past, present and future of information technology. In the “Year of Informatics 2006” the HNF was particularly keen to examine the history of this still quite young discipline. The short-lived nature of information technologies means that individuals, inventions, devices, institutes and companies“age” more rapidly than in many other specialties. And in the nature of things the group of computer pioneers from the early days is growing smaller all the time. To supplement a planned new exhibit on “Software and Inform- ics” at the HNF, the idea arose of recording the history of informatics in an accompanying publication. Mysearchforsuitablesourcesandauthorsveryquickly cameupwith the right answer, the very rst name in Germany: Friedrich L. Bauer, Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at the TU in Munich, one of the - thers of informatics in Germany and for decades the indefatigable author of the“Historical Notes” column of the journal Informatik Spektrum. Friedrich L. Bauer was already the author of two works on the history of informatics, published in different decades and in different books. Both of them are notable for their knowledgeable, extremely comp- hensive and yet compact style. My obvious course was to motivate this author to amalgamate, supplement and illustrate his previous work.

The First Conference on the History of Nordic Computing (HiNC1) was organized in Trondheim, in June 2003. The HiNC1 event focused on the early years of computing, that is the years from the 1940s through the 1960s, although it formally extended to year 1985. In the preface of the proceedings of HiNC1, Janis Bubenko, Jr., John Impagliazzo, and Arne Sølvberg describe well the peculiarities of early Nordic c- puting [1]. While developing hardware was a necessity for the first professionals, quite soon the computer became an industrial product. Computer scientists, among others, grew increasingly interested in programming and application software. P- gress in these areas from the 1960s to the 1980s was experienced as astonishing. The developments during these decades were taken as the focus of HiNC2. During those decades computers arrived to every branch of large and medium-sized businesses and the users of the computer systems were no longer only computer s- cialists but also people with other main duties. Compared to the early years of comp- ing before 1960, where the number of computer projects and applications was small, capturing a holistic view of the history between the 1960s and the 1980s is conside- bly more difficult. The HiNC2 conference attempted to help in this endeavor.

These proceedings derive from an international conference on the history of computing and education. This conference is the third of hopefully a series of conferences that will take place within the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) and hence, we describe it as the “Third IFIP Conference on the History of Computing and Education” or simply “History of Computing and Education 3” (HCE3). This volume consists of a collection of articles presented at the HCE3 conference held in association with the IFIP 2008 World Computer Congress in Milano, Italy. Articles range from a wide variety of computing perspectives and they represent activities from six continents. The HCE3 conference is an event of the IFIP Working Group 9.7 on the History of Computing, a working group of IFIP's Technical Committee 9 (TC9) on the Relationship between Computers and Society. In addition, it is in cooperation with the IFIP Technical Committee 3 (TC3) on Education. The HCE3 conference brings to light a broad spectrum of issues. It illustrates topics in computing as they occurred in the “early days” of computing whose ramifications or overtones remain with us today. Indeed, many of the early challenges remain part of our educational tapestry; most likely, many will evolve into future challenges. Therefore, these proceedings provide additional value to the reader as it will reflect in part the future development of computing and education to stimulate new ideas and models in educational development.

Overview The objective of this book is to provide an introduction into some of the key topics in the history of computing. The computing eld is a vast area and a truly comp- hensive account of its history would require several volumes. The aims of this book are more modest, and its goals are to give the reader a avour of some of the key topics and events in the history of computing. It is hoped that this will stimulate the interested reader to study the more advanced books and articles available. The history of computing has its origins in the dawn of civilization. Early hunter gatherer societies needed to be able to perform elementary calculations such as counting and arithmetic. As societies evolved into towns and communities there was a need for more sophisticated calculations. This included primitive accounting to determine the appropriate taxation to be levied as well as the development of geometry to enable buildings, templates and bridges to be constructed. Our account commenceswith the contributions of the Egyptians, and Babylonians. It moves on to the foundationalwork done by Boole and Babbage in the nineteenth century, and to the importantwork on Boolean Logicand circuit design doneby Claude Shannon in the 1930s. The theoretical work done by Turing on computability is considered as well as work done by von Neumann and others on the fundamental architecture for computers.