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The International Dyslexia Association definition of dyslexia was updated 20 years ago and has been referenced frequently in research and practice. In this paper, researchers from the Florida Center for Reading Research consider the components of the definition and make recommendations for revisions. These include recognizing the persistence of word-reading, decoding, and spelling difficulties, acknowledging the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia, clarifying exclusionary factors, and denoting comorbidity with other developmental disorders. It is also suggested that the academic and psychosocial consequences of dyslexia be highlighted to reinforce a preventive service delivery model. Lastly, the inclusion of dyslexia within a specific learning disability category is supported., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The International Dyslexia Association.)

Across word reading development, there are important and evolving relationships between oral and written semantic knowledge. Recent research has focused on these relationships, with accumulating evidence supporting the role of word knowledge and related word characteristics as important factors influencing polysyllabic word reading abilities. The purpose of this study was to investigate how semantic-related effects across child-level skills (e.g., general vocabulary knowledge), word-level properties (e.g., age of acquisition), child-by-word-level familiarity (e.g., item-level familiarity), and interactions between key child attributes and word characteristics (e.g., word reading skill by age of acquisition) contribute to polysyllabic word reading. Specifically, we emphasize the semantic contributions of word-level features to word reading development, which have been relatively underexplored in the literature. A sample of elementary school students oversampled for word reading difficulty (N = 92) in Grades 3 to 5 read a set of polysyllabic words (J = 45) and completed a battery of reading and language-related measures. Using cross-classified random-effects models and accounting for various control variables, semantic-related variables representing item-level familiarity; child-level set for variability; and word-level age of acquisition and number of morphemes were significant predictors in the main-effects model. A significant interaction between sight word efficiency and age of acquisition indicated higher probabilities of correctly reading polysyllabic words at lower levels of acquisition for better readers. Results indicate important semantic-related influences on polysyllabic word reading at the child, word, and child-by-word levels, suggesting meaningful relationships between knowledge of the orthographic form of a word and semantic knowledge in developing readers., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Given English orthography's quasi-regular nature, applying common decoding rules to a word does not always result in a correct pronunciation matching the stored phonological form (e.g., the word tongue). To arrive at a correct pronunciation, developing readers must make the match between a decoded pronunciation and a word's correct pronunciation stored in memory. Developmentally, this matching process varies as a function of child skill (e.g., decoding, vocabulary) and word characteristics (e.g., spelling-to-pronunciation transparency, concreteness), with each being continuously distributed. Spelling-to-pronunciation transparency ratings represent a global measure of the ease of arriving at a word's correct pronunciation from its decoded pronunciation and in experimental studies has been shown to be a critical dimension in assessing the difficulty of a word for developing readers (e.g., Steacy et al., 2022a, 2022b). This study aimed to create a database of spelling-to-pronunciation transparency ratings for the 23,282 most frequently written English words, made available in the supplemental materials for future analyses. We asked adults to rate words' spelling-to-pronunciation transparency on a scale of 1-6 (1 = very easy to match, 6 = very difficult). Results of multiple regression analyses revealed variance in ratings to be unaccounted for by other word features, demonstrating the uniqueness of these ratings. Furthermore, words that are considered irregular, classified previously as strange, or contained at least one schwa received higher ratings, demonstrating strong associations between transparency and regularity. Lastly, these ratings significantly predicted both adult word naming time and child word reading accuracy above and beyond other word features known to predict reading., (© 2023. The Psychonomic Society, Inc.)

Purpose: The lexical quality (LQ) hypothesis predicts that a skilled reader's lexicon will be inhabited by a range of low- to high-quality items, and the probability of representing a word with high quality varies as a function of person-level, word-level, and item-specific variables. These predictions were tested with spelling accuracy as a gauge of LQ., Method: Item-response based crossed random effects models explored simultaneous contributions of person-level (e.g., participant's decoding skill), word-level (e.g., word's transparency rating), item-specific (e.g., participant's familiarity with specific word), and person-by-word interaction predictors (e.g., decoding by transparency rating interaction) to the spelling of 25 commonly misspelled irregular English words in 61 undergraduate university students ( M = 19.4 years, 70.49% female, 39.34% Hispanic, 81.97% White)., Results: Substantial variance among individuals in item-level spelling accuracy was accounted for by person-level decoding skill; item-specific familiarity, proportion of schwas correctly represented, and correctly identifying the word from its mispronunciation; and an interaction of transparency rating by general decoding skill., Conclusions: Consistent with the LQ hypothesis, results suggest that one's ability to form a high-quality lexical representation of a given word depends on a complex combination of person-level abilities, word-level characteristics, item-specific experiences, and an interaction between person- and word-level influences.

Water insoluble α -glucans that were enzymatically synthesized using glucansucrase that was cloned from Leuconostoc mesenteroides NRRL B-1118 were previously shown to form nanoparticles via high pressure homogenization. These α -glucan nanoparticles were previously shown capable of encapsulating a small hydrophobic molecule. This work demonstrates that the same α -glucan can be formed into nanoparticles that encapsulate feruloylated soy glycerides from modified soybean oil, a product of interest to the cosmetic and skin care industries because of the UV absorbance and antioxidant properties of the feruloyl moiety. It is demonstrated that the feruloylated soy glyceride/ α -glucan nanoparticles have distinct size, zeta potential and thermal profiles from that of nanoparticles made from α -glucan alone or feruloylated soy glyceride alone. Thermal analysis also demonstrates the release of feruloylated soy glycerides from the α -glucan nanoparticles., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Mycotoxin sequestration materials are important tools to reduce mycotoxin illness and enable proper handling of mycotoxin-contaminated commodities. Three food-grade bentonite clays and four generally recognized as safe (GRAS) charcoal/biochar carbon materials that are marketed as feed additives and supplements were evaluated for their ability to sequester the mycotoxins aflatoxin B 1 , ochratoxin A, and zearalenone. The surface area of the clays varied between 32.1 to 51.4 mg 2 /g, and the surface area of the carbon-based materials varied from 1.7 to 1735 mg 2 /g. In vitro, gastric fluid studies indicated that certain pine biochar and activated coconut charcoal could sequester high amounts (85+%) of the mycotoxins at 1 ppm levels or below. However, some biochar materials with lower surface area properties lacked binding capacity. The coconut shell charcoal and pine biochar utilize agricultural waste products in a manner that significantly reduces carbon emissions and provides valuable materials to minimize exposure to toxins found in food and feed.

Quasiregular orthographies such as English contain substantial ambiguities between orthography and phonology that force developing readers to acquire flexibility during decoding of unfamiliar words, a skill referred to as a "set for variability" (SfV). The ease with which a child can disambiguate the mismatch between the decoded form of a word and its actual lexical phonological form has been operationalized using the SfV mispronunciation task (e.g., the word wasp is pronounced to rhyme with clasp [i.e., /wæsp/] and the child must recognize the actual pronunciation of the word to be /wɒsp/). SfV has been shown to be a significant predictor of word reading variance. However, little is known about the relative strength of SfV as a predictor of word reading compared to other well-established predictors or the strength of this relationship in children with dyslexia. To address these questions, we administered the SfV task to a sample of grade 2-5 children ( N =489) along with other reading related measures. SfV accounted for 15% unique variance in word reading above and beyond other predictors, whereas phonological awareness (PA) accounted for only 1%. Dominance analysis indicated SfV is the most powerful predictor, demonstrating complete statistical dominance over other variables including PA. Quantile regression revealed SfV is a stronger predictor at lower levels of reading skill, indicating it may be an important predictor in students with dyslexia. Results suggest that SfV is a powerful and potentially highly sensitive predictor of early reading difficulties and, therefore, may be important for early identification and treatment of dyslexia.

A series of dicarboxylic-amylose inclusion complexes (AIC) were prepared by excess steam jet-cooking high amylose corn starch with linear C10, C12, C14, and C16 dicarboxylic acids to examine the influence of two polar head groups on complex formation. The C12, C14, and C16 dicarboxylic acid AIC were prepared in 48-63 % yields and contained 8.9-11.8 % diacid while the C10 AIC gave 30 % and contained 2.6 % diacid. These AIC had V6 helical amylose structures by XRD and complexation was further confirmed by DSC, FTIR, and TGA. SEM of the C12-C16 AIC revealed micron-sized toroidal spherulites while the C10 AIC was predominantly amorphous. DSC showed two AIC related transitions. This work provides a better understanding of the formation and physicochemical properties of these diacid AIC. Preparation by excess steam jet cooking demonstrates practical and commercial utility to prepare AIC as off-the-shelf materials for food and nonfood applications., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Set for variability (SfV) is an oral language task which requires an individual to disambiguate the mismatch between the decoded form of an irregular word and its actual lexical pronunciation. For example, in the task, the word wasp is pronounced to rhyme with clasp (i.e., / wæsp /) and the individual must recognize the actual pronunciation of the word to be / wɒsp /. SfV has been shown to be a significant predictor of both item-specific and general word reading variance above and beyond that associated with phonemic awareness skill, letter-sound knowledge, and vocabulary skill. However, very little is known about the child characteristics and word features that affect SfV item performance. In this study we explored whether word features and child characteristics that involve phonology only are adequate to explain item-level variance in SfV performance or whether including predictors that involve the connection between phonology and orthography explain additional variance. To accomplish this we administered the SfV task ( N =75 items) to a sample of grade 2-5 children ( N =489) along with a battery of reading, reading related, and language measures. Results suggest that variance in SfV performance is uniquely accounted for by measures tapping phonological skill along with those capturing knowledge of phonology to orthography associations, but more so in children with better decoding skill. Additionally, word reading skill was found to moderate the influence of other predictors suggesting that how the task is approached may be impacted by word reading and decoding ability.

Statistical views of reading highlight the link between proficient literacy and the assimilation of various regularities embedded in writing systems, including those in the mapping between print and meaning. Still, orthographic-semantic (O-S) regularities remain relatively understudied, with open questions regarding 3 issues: (a) how O-S regularities should be quantified, (b) how they impact the behavior of proficient readers, and (c) whether individual differences in sensitivity to these regularities predict reading skills. The goal of the current article is to address these questions. We start by reviewing previous studies estimating print-meaning regularities, where orthography-to-semantics consistency (OSC) is defined as the mean semantic similarity between a word and its orthographic neighbors. While we adopt this general strategy, we identify a potential confound in previous operational definitions. We therefore offer a modified measure, which we use to examine group-level OSC effects in available data sets of single word recognition and reading for comprehension. Our findings validate the existence of OSC effects but reveal variation across tasks, with OSC effects emerging more strongly in tasks involving a direct mapping of print to meaning. Next, we present a reanalysis of word naming data from 399 second through fifth graders, where we examine individual differences in reliance on O-S regularities and their relation to participants' reading skills. We show that early readers whose naming accuracy is more influenced by OSC (i.e., those who rely more on O-S) have better passage comprehension abilities. We conclude by discussing the role of O-S regularities in proficient reading and literacy acquisition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Mycotoxins, including zearalenone, are important natural products produced by fungi that occasionally contaminate agricultural commodities and pose serious health risks to consumers of food and feed. Zearalenone and its metabolite, α-zearalanol, are of significant concern due to their estrogenic and anabolic steroid activity. Several governments have regulatory standards and advisory guidelines for zearalenone and α-zearalanol. Raman and ultraviolet spectroscopy were employed with density functional theory methods to evaluate spectroscopic properties to distinguish between zearalenone and α-zearalanol systematically. Raman bands were assigned based on vibrational frequency calculations. A portable Raman spectroscopy instrument (785 nm laser) distinguished between zearalenone and α-zearalanol in a label-free manner. Many vibrational bands of zearalenone and α-zearalanol are similar, including high-intensity peaks at 1315 cm -1 and 1650 cm -1 . However, the intensities in the Raman spectra at 1465 cm -1 , 1495 cm -1 , and 1620 cm -1 enabled the identification of zearalenone. The Raman peak at 1450 cm -1 is associated with α-zearalanol. These vibrational bands serve as spectral indicators to differentiate between the structurally similar zearalenone and α-zearalanol., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The probability of a child reading a word correctly is influenced by both child skills and properties of the word. The purpose of this study was to investigate child-level skills (set for variability and vocabulary), word-level properties (concreteness), word structure (mono- vs. polymorphemic), and interactions between these properties and word structure within a comprehensive item-level model of complex word reading. This study is unique in that it purposely sampled both mono- and polymorphemic polysyllabic words., Method: A sample of African American ( n = 69) and Hispanic ( n =6) students in grades 2-5 ( n =75) read a set of mono- and polymorphemic polysyllabic words ( J =54). Item-level responses were modeled using cross-classified generalized random-effects models allowing variance to be partitioned between child and word while controlling for other important child factors and word features., Results: Set for variability and the interaction between concreteness and word structure (i.e., mono- vs. polymorphemic) were significant predictors. Higher probabilities of reading poly- over monomorphemic words were identified at lower levels of concreteness with the opposite at higher levels of concreteness., Conclusions: Results indicate important predictors at both the child- and word-level and support the importance of morphological structure for reading abstract polysyllabic words., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Developmental studies examining relations between word reading (WR) and decoding in typical and dyslexic populations routinely cut the reading distribution to form distinct groups. However, dichotomizing continuous variables to study development is problematic for multiple reasons. Instead, we modeled and visualized the parallel growth of WR and nonword reading (NWR) factor scores longitudinally in a Grade 1-4 developmental sample (N = 588). The results indicate that while WR and NWR growth factors are highly related (r = .71), the relation between WR and NWR trajectories change as a function of initial WR. Results are interpreted within computational models of dyslexia in which children with dyslexia overfit orthography → phonology relations at the level of the word, limiting the development of sublexical representations needed to read nonwords., (© 2020 Society for Research in Child Development.)

The main purpose of this study was to test the effects of word-problem intervention, with versus without embedded language comprehension instruction, on at-risk 1 st graders' word-problem performance. We also isolated the need for a structured approach to word-problem intervention and tested the efficacy of schema-based instruction at 1 st grade. Children (n=391; mean age = 6.53, SD = 0.32) were randomly assigned to 4 conditions: schema-based word-problem intervention with embedded language instruction, the same word-problem intervention but without language comprehension instruction, structured number knowledge intervention without a structured word-problem component, and a control group. Each intervention included 45 30-min sessions. Multilevel models, accounting for classroom and school effects, revealed the efficacy of schema-based word-problem intervention at 1 st grade, with both word-problem conditions outperforming the number knowledge condition and the control group. Yet, word-problem performance was significantly stronger for the schema-based condition with embedded language comprehension instruction compared to the schema-based condition without language comprehension instruction. Number knowledge intervention conveyed no word-problem advantage over the control group, even though all 3 intervention conditions outperformed the control group on arithmetic. Results demonstrate the importance of a structured approach to word-problem intervention; the efficacy of schema-based instruction at 1 st grade; and the added value of language comprehension instruction within word-problem intervention. Results also provide causal evidence on the role of language comprehension in word-problem solving.

Predictive models were developed using two-dimensional quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) methods coupled with B3LYP/6-311+G** density functional theory modeling that describe the antimicrobial properties of twenty-four triazolothiadiazine compounds against Aspergillus niger , Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium sp., as well as the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus subtilis , Escherichia coli , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . B3LYP/6-311+G** density functional theory calculations indicated the triazolothiadiazine derivatives possess only modest variation between the frontier orbital properties. Genetic function approximation (GFA) analysis identified the topological and density functional theory derived descriptors for antimicrobial models using a population of 200 models with one to three descriptors that were crossed for 10,000 generations. Two or three descriptor models provided validated predictive models for antifungal and antibiotic properties with R 2 values between 0.725 and 0.768 and no outliers. The best models to describe antimicrobial activities include descriptors related to connectivity, electronegativity, polarizability, and van der Waals properties. The reported method provided robust two-dimensional QSAR models with topological and density functional theory descriptors that explain a variety of antifungal and antibiotic activities for structurally related heterocyclic compounds.

We conducted a secondary analysis of data from a randomized control trial to explore this question: Does "response/no response" best characterize students' reactions to a generally efficacious first-grade reading program, or is a more nuanced characterization necessary? Data were collected on 265 at-risk readers' word reading prior to and immediately following program implementation in first grade and in spring of second grade. Pretreatment data were also obtained on domain-specific skills (letter knowledge, decoding, passage comprehension, language) and domain-general skills (working memory, non-verbal reasoning). Latent profile analysis of word reading across the three time points with controls as a local norm revealed a strongly responsive group ( n = 45) with mean word-reading z scores of 0.25, 1.64, and 1.26 at the three time points, respectively; a mildly responsive group ( n = 109), z scores = 0.30, 0.47, and 0.55; a mildly non-responsive group ( n = 90), z scores = -0.11, -0.15, and -0.55; and a strongly non-responsive group ( n = 21), z scores = -1.24, -1.26, and -1.57. The two responsive groups had stronger pretreatment letter knowledge and passage comprehension than the two non-responsive groups. The mildly non-responsive group demonstrated better pretreatment passage comprehension than the strongly non-responsive group. No domain-general skill distinguished the four groups. Findings suggest response to early reading intervention was more complicated than response/no response, and pretreatment reading comprehension was an important predictor of response even with pretreatment word reading controlled.

Statistical views of literacy development maintain that proficient reading requires the assimilation of myriad statistical regularities present in the writing system. Indeed, previous studies have tied statistical learning (SL) abilities to reading skills, establishing the existence of a link between the two. However, some issues are currently left unanswered, including questions regarding the underlying bases for these associations as well as the types of statistical regularities actually assimilated by developing readers. Here we present an alternative approach to study the role of SL in literacy development, focusing on individual differences among beginning readers. Instead of using an artificial task to estimate SL abilities, our approach identifies individual differences in children's reliance on statistical regularities as reflected by actual reading behavior. We specifically focus on individuals' reliance on regularities in the mapping between print and speech versus associations between print and meaning in a word naming task. We present data from 399 children, showing that those whose oral naming performance is impacted more by print-speech regularities and less by associations between print and meaning have better reading skills. These findings suggest that a key route by which SL mechanisms impact developing reading abilities is via their role in the assimilation of sub-lexical regularities between printed and spoken language -and more generally, in detecting regularities that are more reliable than others. We discuss the implications of our findings to both SL and reading theories.

The science of reading should be informed by an evolving evidence base built upon the scientific method. Decades of basic research and randomized controlled trials of interventions and instructional routines have formed a substantial evidence base to guide best practices in reading instruction, reading intervention, and the early identification of at-risk readers. The recent resurfacing of questions about what constitutes the science of reading is leading to misinformation in the public space that may be viewed by educational stakeholders as merely differences of opinion among scientists. Our goals in this paper are to revisit the science of reading through an epistemological lens to clarify what constitutes evidence in the science of reading and to offer a critical evaluation of the evidence provided by the science of reading. To this end, we summarize those things that we believe have compelling evidence, promising evidence, or a lack of compelling evidence. We conclude with a discussion of areas of focus that we believe will advance the science of reading to meet the needs of all children in the 21st century.

We examined dynamic assessment's (DA's) added value over traditional assessments for identifying Spanish-speaking English learners' (ELs) risk for developing mathematics disabilities, as a function of the language of test administration (English vs. Spanish), type of math outcome, and EL's language dominance. At the start of first grade, ELs ( N = 368) were randomly assigned to English-DA or Spanish-DA conditions, were assessed on static mathematics measures and domain-general (language, reasoning) measures in English, and completed DA in their assigned language condition. At year's end, they were assessed on calculation and word-problem solving outcomes in English. Results from multigroup path models indicated that Spanish-DA mitigates the impact of ELs' language dominance on DA performance. Moreover, ELs' language dominance moderated DA's predictive validity differentially depending on DA language and type of outcome. Spanish-DA showed higher predictive validity in Spanish-dominant ELs than English-dominant ELs when predicting calculations but not word-problem solving. English-DA was predictive for both outcomes, regardless of ELs' language dominance.

α-Glucans that were enzymatically synthesized from sucrose using glucansucrase cloned from Leuconostoc mesenteroides NRRL B-1118 were found to have a glass transition temperature of approximately 80 °C. Using high-pressure homogenization (~70 MPa), the α-glucans were converted into nanoparticles of ~120 nm in diameter with a surface potential of ~-3 mV. Fluorescence measurements using 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) indicate that the α-glucan nanoparticles have a hydrophobic core that remains intact from 10 to 85 °C. α-Glucan nanoparticles were found to be stable for over 220 days and able to form at three pH levels. Accelerated exposure measurements demonstrated that the α-glucan nanoparticles can endure exposure to elevated temperatures up to 60 °C for 6 h intervals.

The orthographic choice (OC) task-requiring individuals to choose the correct spelling between a word and a pseudohomophone foil (e.g., goat vs. gote)-has been used as an outcome measure of orthographic learning and as a predictor of individual differences in word reading development. Some consider the OC task a measure of orthographic knowledge (e.g., Conrad, Harris, & Williams (Reading and Writing, 26(8), 1223-1239, 2013)), whereas others have suggested that the task measures a reader's familiarity with the word's orthographic representation and thus measures word reading skill (e.g., Castles & Nation, 2006). We examined this assertion by testing OC task performance of individuals ages 8 to 18 (J = 296) and their ability to read the OC target words (I = 80) in isolation using crossed random effects item-response models. Results reveal that response on the OC task is not fully determined by the ability of an individual to read the target word in isolation. Specifically, the probability of choosing the correct orthographic form when the word was pronounced incorrectly was .79; whereas it was .90 when the word was pronounced correctly. Measures of receptive spelling and phonemic awareness (person-characteristics) and word frequency and orthographic neighborhood size (item-characteristics) accounted for significant variance in orthographic choice after controlling for target item reading and other reading-related abilities. We interpret the results to suggest that the OC task taps both item-specific orthographic knowledge and more general orthographic knowledge.

Models of word reading that simultaneously take into account item-level and person-level fixed and random effects are broadly known as explanatory item response models (EIRM). Although many variants of the EIRM are available, the field has generally focused on the doubly explanatory model for modeling individual differences on item responses. Moreover, the historical application of the EIRM has been a Rasch version of the model where the item discrimination values are fixed at 1.0 and the random or fixed item effects only pertain to the item difficulties. The statistical literature has advanced to allow for more robust testing of observed or latent outcomes, as well as more flexible parameterizations of the EIRM. The purpose of the present study was to compare four types of Rasch-based EIRMs (i.e., doubly descriptive, person explanatory, item explanatory, doubly explanatory) and more broadly compare Rasch and 2PL EIRM when including person-level and item-level predictors. Results showed that not only was the error variance smaller in the unconditional 2PL EIRM compared to the Rasch EIRM due to including the item discrimination random effect, but that patterns of unique item-level explanatory variables differ between the two approaches. Results are interpreted within the context of what each statistical model affords to the opportunity for describing and explaining differences in word-level performance.

Ferulic acid and its derivatives are important natural products found throughout the plant kingdom and are of special interest due to their health benefits. 1-Feruloyl-sn-glycerol (FG) and 1,3-diferuloyl-sn-glycerol (F 2 G) are two common bioproducts of ferulic acid that co-occur in nature and during the biocatalytic production of feruloylated lipids. In this paper, we report a comprehensive characterization of FG and F 2 G using Raman and UV spectroscopies and theoretical density functional theory calculations at the B3LYP/6-311+G** level. UV spectroscopy produced spectra for FG and F 2 G with similar peak shape, but difference intensities. The vibrational frequency calculations aided in the assignment of the Raman bands. The Raman analysis demonstrates that Raman spectroscopy is a rapid label free method to clearly distinguish between FG and F 2 G., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Ethyl ferulate was transesterified with Enova Oil (a soy-based vegetable oil containing 80-85% diacylglycerol) using Novozym 435 at 60 °C. The resultant feruloylated vegetable oil reaction product produced a precipitate (96.4 g, 4.02 wt%) after 7 d of standing at room temperature. Preliminary characterization of the precipitate identified the natural phenylpropenoids 1,3-diferuloyl- sn -glycerol (F 2 G) and 1-feruloyl- sn -glycerol (FG) as the major components. A flash chromatography method was developed and optimized (e.g., mass of sample load, flow rate, binary solvent gradient slope, and separation run length) using a binary gradient of hexane and acetone mobile phase and silica gel stationary phase to separate and isolate F 2 G and FG. The optimized parameters afforded F 2 G (1.188 ± 0.052 g, 39.6 ± 1.7%) and FG (0.313 ± 0.038 g, 10.4 ± 1.3%) from 3.0 g of the transesterification precipitate, n = 10 trials. Overall, all flash chromatography separations combined, F 2 G (39.1 g, 40.6%) and FG (9.4 g, 9.8%) were isolated in a combined yield of 48.5 g (51.4%), relative to the 96.4 g of transesterification precipitate collected. The optimized flash chromatography method was a necessary improvement over previously reported preparative HPLC and column chromatography methods used to purify milligram to low gram quantities of F 2 G and FG to be able to process ~100 g of material in a timely, efficient manner., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Specific learning disabilities (SLDs) are highly relevant to the science and practice of psychology, both historically and currently, exemplifying the integration of interdisciplinary approaches to human conditions. They can be manifested as primary conditions-as difficulties in acquiring specific academic skills-or as secondary conditions, comorbid to other developmental disorders such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In this synthesis of historical and contemporary trends in research and practice, we mark the 50th anniversary of the recognition of SLDs as a disability in the United States. Specifically, we address the manifestations, occurrence, identification, comorbidity, etiology, and treatment of SLDs, emphasizing the integration of information from the interdisciplinary fields of psychology, education, psychiatry, genetics, and cognitive neuroscience. SLDs, exemplified here by specific word reading, reading comprehension, mathematics, and written expression disabilities, represent spectrum disorders, each occurring in approximately 5% to 15% of the school-aged population. In addition to risk for academic deficiencies and related functional social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties, those with SLDs often have poorer long-term social and vocational outcomes. Given the high rate of occurrence of SLDs and their lifelong negative impact on functioning if not treated, it is important to establish and maintain effective prevention, surveillance, and treatment systems involving professionals from various disciplines trained to minimize the risk and maximize the protective factors for SLDs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This study explored the developmental trajectories and predictors of word reading and reading comprehension among young at-risk readers. In fall of first grade, 185 students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties were assessed on measures of domain-specific skills (phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and vocabulary), domain-general skills (working memory, nonverbal reasoning, and processing speed), and word reading and reading comprehension. Word reading and reading comprehension were assessed again in spring of grades 1-4. Individual growth curve modeling showed that the children demonstrated decelerated growth on word reading and linear growth on reading comprehension, although their performance on both word reading and reading comprehension were consistently below average on national norms. After controlling for word reading and reading comprehension in first grade, letter knowledge predicted growth in word reading; vocabulary and nonverbal reasoning predicted growth in reading comprehension. That is, we found different developmental trajectories and different predictors for word reading and reading comprehension among our at-risk sample. Implications are discussed for theory and early reading instruction for at-risk children.

The overarching goal of the new Florida State University/Haskins Laboratory/University of Connecticut Learning Disability (LD) Hub project is to align computational and behavioral theories of individual word reading development more closely with the challenges of learning to read a quasi-regular orthography (i.e., English) for both typically developing (TD) children and, more specifically, children with dyslexia. Our LD Hub adopts an integrated approach to better understand the neurocognitive bases of individual differences in word reading development by specifically examining the experiential (exogenous) and child-specific (endogenous) factors that determine acquisition of orthographic-phonological knowledge at different subword granularities using behavioral and computational modeling. Findings are intended to enrich understanding of the processes that influence individual differences in word reading development in TD and dyslexic children and significantly inform issues of practice (e.g., curriculum, instruction, diagnosis, and intervention). Here, we briefly provide the rationale for the Hub and present findings from the initial behavioral and computational modeling studies., (© 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The capacity of molecules to inhibit oxidation is widely tested using liposomes as host matrices of the antioxidant molecule of interest. Spectroscopic assays are readily used for this purpose, specifically assays using 2,2'-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride (AAPH). In this work the effect that charged lipids have on an AAPH antioxidation assay using 4,4-difluoro-5-(4-phenyl-1,3-butadienyl)-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene-3-undecanoic acid (C 11 -BODIPY® 581/591) as the reporter molecule was investigated. We measured the diameter, zeta potential and spectroscopic rate of decay and area-under-the-curve (AUC) associated with liposomes containing C 11 -BODIPY® 581/591 at varying molar percentages (0-10 mol%) of charged (cationic or anionic) lipids and compared the results. We showed that although increasing amounts of cationic or anionic lipids did change the diameter of the liposomes, size had little to no effect on the area-under-the-curve or decay rate of fluorescence. Increased (more positive) or decreased (more negative) zeta potentials did, on the other hand, affect the spectroscopic decay rates and area-under-the-curve. The results demonstrate the importance of considering the presence of charged lipids in the AAPH antioxidation assay., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

This study explored word reading accuracy and word learning efficiency in first- and second-grade students (N = 125). In two experiments, students participated in a short training exposing them to words that varied on orthographic regularity and imageability. In Experiment 1 the form of word feedback was manipulated (phonemic vs. whole word), whereas in Experiment 2 pretraining exposure was manipulated (training on meaning vs. imageability). Crossed random effects models were used to explore child- and item-level predictors related to number of exposures to mastery, posttest word reading performance, and maintenance performance after 1 week. Results from Experiment 1 indicate that imageability plays a role in irregular word learning. Results from Experiment 2 suggest that students who received imageability training required fewer exposures to reach mastery. There was a significant interaction between initial word reading skill and condition, with students with low word reading skills requiring fewer exposures for mastery if they were in the imageability condition. Overall, these findings suggest that word imageability significantly affects both word reading accuracy and rate of word learning., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This special issue bundles a set of eight empirical studies and one review article that explore the role of SL mechanisms (both domain-specific and domain-general) in supporting word reading and spelling development, and vice-versa. In this introduction to the special issue, we worked to summarize the extent to which studies support our hypotheses relating SL to reading and spelling development while also pointing out inconsistencies across studies that require us to refine and rethink our hypotheses.

Because of the importance of teaching reading comprehension to struggling young readers and the infrequency with which it has been implemented and evaluated, we designed a comprehensive first-grade reading comprehension program. We conducted a component analysis of the program's decoding/fluency (DF) and reading comprehension (COMP) dimensions, creating DF and DF+COMP treatments to parse the value of COMP. Students ( N = 125) were randomly assigned to the 2 active treatments and controls. Treatment children were tutored 3 times per week for 21 weeks in 45-min sessions. Children in DF and DF+COMP together performed more strongly than controls on word reading and comprehension. However, pretreatment word reading appeared to moderate these results such that children with weaker beginning word reading across the treatments outperformed similarly low-performing controls to a significantly greater extent than treatment children with stronger beginning word reading outperformed comparable controls. DF+COMP children did not perform better than DF children. Study limitations and implications for research and practice are discussed.

In a quasiregular orthography like English, children inevitably encounter irregular words during reading. Previous research suggests successful reading of an irregular word depends at least partially on a child's ability to address the mismatch between decoded form and stored word pronunciation, referred to as a child's set for variability, and the word's relative transparency, measured here using a spelling to pronunciation transparency rating. Item-level analyses were used to explore the relationship between general child performance on the set for variability mispronunciation task, word specific set for variability (predicting reading of that word), spelling to pronunciation transparency rating, and irregular word reading. Significant predictors included general word reading, general set for variability performance, and item-specific set for variability performance; word frequency and spelling to pronunciation transparency rating; and interaction between word reading and the transparency rating. Results underscore the importance of considering both general and item-specific factors affecting irregular word reading., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

As children learn to read they become sensitive to context-dependent vowel pronunciations in words, considered a form of statistical learning. The work of Treiman and colleagues demonstrated that readers' vowel pronunciations depend on the consonantal context in which the vowel occurs and reading experience. We examined child- and nonword-factors associated with children's assignment of more vs. less frequent grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPC) to vowel pronunciations as a function of rime coda in monosyllabic nonwords. Students ( N =96) in grades 2-5 read nonwords in which more vs. less frequent vowel GPCs were wholly supported or partially favored by the rime unit. Two explanatory item-response models were developed using alternative nonword scoring procedures. Use of less frequent vowel GPCs was predicted by set for variability, word reading, and rime support for the context-dependent vowel pronunciation. We interpret the results within a developmental word reading model in which initially incomplete and oversimplified GPC representations become more context-dependent with reading experience.

A robust method was developed to investigate the liposomal behavior of novel enzymatically-synthesized hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol phospholipids. Bilayer characteristic obtained by this method, including bilayer formation stability and adsorption properties, were explored using dynamic light scattering, zeta-potential measurements, and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCMD), respectively. Liposome diameters were found to typically increase from pH 5.5 to pH 10. Zeta potentials values, on the other hand, were found to be well below -25 mV at all pH conditions explored, with the lowest values (and thus, the best liposome stability) at pH 5.5 or pH 10. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring measurements demonstrated that 100% 1,2-dioloeoylphosphatidyl-hydroxytyrosol (DOPHT) liposomes adsorbed intact onto silica in buffer conditions at pH 5.5 and with no calcium, or at pH 7.5 with calcium (no adsorption was detected at pH 10). 1,2-Dioleoylphosphatidyl-tyrosol (DOPT) liposomes were shown to adsorb intact under buffer conditions only at pH 5.5 with and without calcium. 1,2-Dioleoylphosphatidyl-2-phenolethanol (DOPPE), in comparison, readily adsorbed intact at pH 7.5 without calcium and just slightly at pH 5.5 with calcium present, but formed a supported bilayer over hours at pH 5.5 in the absence of calcium ions.

Researchers have increasingly investigated sources of variance in reading comprehension test scores, particularly with students with reading difficulties (RD). The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine if the achievement gap between students with RD and typically developing (TD) students varies as a function of different reading comprehension response formats (e.g., multiple choice, cloze). A systematic literature review identified 82 eligible studies. All studies administered reading comprehension assessments to students with RD and TD students in Grades K-12. Hedge's g standardized mean difference effect sizes were calculated, and random effects robust variance estimation techniques were used to aggregate average weighted effect sizes for each response format. Results indicated that the achievement gap between students with RD and TD students was larger for some response formats (e.g., picture selection ES g = -1.80) than others (e.g., retell ES g = -0.60). Moreover, for multiple-choice, cloze, and open-ended question response formats, single-predictor metaregression models explored potential moderators of heterogeneity in effect sizes. No clear patterns, however, emerged in regard to moderators of heterogeneity in effect sizes across response formats. Findings suggest that the use of different response formats may lead to variability in the achievement gap between students with RD and TD students.

Background: Feruloylated vegetable oil is a valuable green bioproduct that has several cosmeceutical applications associated with its inherent anti-oxidant and ultraviolet-absorption properties. Hydrolyzed vegetable oil by-products can influence product quality and consistency., Results: The formation of by-products by residual water in the enzymatic synthesis of feruloylated vegetable oil was investigated using chemical theory and experimental studies by monitoring the reaction over a 22-day period. The hydrolysis of vegetable oil is thermodynamically favored over the hydrolysis of the ethyl ferulate starting material. These results suggest that hydrolyzed vegetable oil products will be experimentally observed in greater concentrations compared to hydrolyzed ethyl ferulate products., Conclusion: Quantum chemical studies identified several reaction mechanisms that explain the formation of side products by water, suggesting that residual water influences product quality. Efforts to reduce residual water can improve product consistency and reduce purification costs. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA., (Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.)

Purpose: In this article, we respond to Catts and Kamhi's (2017) argument that reading comprehension is not a single ability., Method: We provide a brief review of the impact of strategy instruction, the importance of knowledge in reading comprehension, and possible avenues for future research and practice., Results: We agree with Catts and Kamhi's argument that reading comprehension is a complex endeavor and that current recommended practices do not reflect the complexity of the construct. Knowledge building, despite its important role in comprehension, has been relegated to a back seat in reading comprehension instruction. In the final section of the article, we outline possible avenues for research and practice (e.g., generative language instruction, dialogic approaches to knowledge building, analogical reasoning and disciplinary literacy, the use of graphics and media, inference instruction) for improving reading-comprehension outcomes., Conclusions: Reading comprehension is a complex ability, and comprehension instruction should reflect this complexity. If we want to have an impact on long-term growth in reading comprehension, we will need to expand our current repertoire of instructional methods to include approaches that support the acquisition and integration of knowledge across a variety of texts and topics.

Hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol phospholipids were enzymatically synthesized and investigated for their bilayer properties. Dynamic light scattering demonstrated that hand extrusion at 100nm consistently resulted in liposomes of nearly 85nm diameter for both phosphatidyl-hydroxytyrosol (DOPHT) and phosphatidyl-tyrosol (DOPT). Transmission electron microscopy showed DOPT and DOPHT liposomes extruded at 100-nm to be spherical and non-distinctive from one another. Zeta potential measurements resulted in surface charges<-25mV, demonstrating both DOPT and DOPHT form highly stable liposomes. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring measurements demonstrated that liposomal adsorption was dependent on a combination of DOPT (or DOPHT) mole-percent and calcium ions concentration. Fluorescence anisotropy measurements indicated that melting temperatures of DOPT and DOPHT were below 4°C, suggesting that adsorption behavior and liposome formation was limited by electrostatic interactions and not gel-state formation., (Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.)

Dynamic assessment (DA) of word reading measures learning potential for early reading development by documenting the amount of assistance needed to learn how to read words with unfamiliar orthography. We examined the additive value of DA for predicting first-grade decoding and word recognition development while controlling for autoregressive effects. Additionally, we examined whether predictive validity of DA would be higher for students who have poor phonological awareness skills. First-grade students (n = 105) were assessed on measures of word reading, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and DA in the fall and again assessed on word reading measures in the spring. A series of planned, moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that DA made a significant and unique contribution in predicting word recognition development above and beyond the autoregressor, particularly for students with poor phonological awareness skills. For these students, DA explained 3.5% of the unique variance in end-of-first-grade word recognition that was not attributable to autoregressive effect. Results suggest that DA provides an important source of individual differences in the development of word recognition skills that cannot be fully captured by merely assessing the present level of reading skills through traditional static assessment, particularly for students at risk for developing reading disabilities., (© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2015.)

The purpose of this study was to explore domain-general cognitive skills, domain-specific academic skills, and demographic characteristics that are associated with calculation development from first grade to third grade among young children with learning difficulties. Participants were 176 children identified with reading and mathematics difficulties at the beginning of first grade. Data were collected on working memory, language, nonverbal reasoning, processing speed, decoding, numerical competence, incoming calculations, socioeconomic status, and gender at the beginning of first grade and on calculation performance at four time points: the beginning of first grade, the end of first grade, the end of second grade, and the end of third grade. Latent growth modeling analysis showed that numerical competence, incoming calculation, processing speed, and decoding skills significantly explained the variance in calculation performance at the beginning of first grade. Numerical competence and processing speed significantly explained the variance in calculation performance at the end of third grade. However, numerical competence was the only significant predictor of calculation development from the beginning of first grade to the end of third grade. Implications of these findings for early calculation instructions among young at-risk children are discussed., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of this study was to assess the added value of dynamic assessment (DA) beyond more conventional static measures for predicting individual differences in year-end 1 st -grade calculation (CA) and word-problem (WP) performance, as a function of limited English proficiency (LEP) status. At the start of 1 st grade, students (129 LEP; 163 non-LEP) were assessed on a brief static mathematics test, an extended static mathematics test, static tests of domain-general abilities associated with CAs and WPs (vocabulary; reasoning), and DA. Near end of 1 st grade, they were assessed on CA and WP. Regression analyses indicated that the value of the predictor depends on the predicted outcome and LEP status. In predicting CAs, the extended mathematics test and DA uniquely explained variance for LEP children, with stronger predictive value for the extended mathematics test; for non-LEP children, the extended mathematics test was the only significant predictor. However, in predicting WPs, only DA and vocabulary were uniquely predictive for LEP children, with stronger value for DA; for non-LEP children, the extended mathematics test and DA were comparably uniquely predictive. Neither the brief static mathematics test nor reasoning was significant in predicting either outcome. The potential value of a gated screening process, using an extended mathematics assessment to predict CAs and using DA to predict WPs, is discussed.

Comprehensive models of derived polymorphemic word recognition skill in developing readers, with an emphasis on children with reading difficulty (RD), have not been developed. The purpose of the present study was to model individual differences in polymorphemic word recognition ability at the item level among 5th-grade children (N = 173) oversampled for children with RD using item-response crossed random-effects models. We distinguish between two subtypes of RD children with word recognition problems, those with early-emerging RD and late-emerging RD. An extensive set of predictors representing item-specific knowledge, child-level characteristics, and word-level characteristics were used to predict item-level variance in polymorphemic word recognition. Results indicate that item-specific root word recognition and word familiarity; child-level RD status, morphological awareness, and orthographic choice; word-level frequency and root word family size; and the interactions between morphological awareness and RD status and root word recognition and root transparency predicted individual differences in polymorphemic word recognition item performance. Results are interpreted within a multisource individual difference model of polymorphemic word recognition skill spanning item-specific, child-level, and word-level knowledge., (© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2014.)

The purpose of this study was to determine if modeling school and classroom effects was necessary in estimating passage reading growth across elementary grades. Longitudinal data from 8367 students in 2989 classrooms in 202 Reading First schools were used in this study and were obtained from the Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network maintained by the Florida Center for Reading Research. Oral reading fluency (ORF) was assessed four times per school year. Five growth models with varying levels of data (student, classroom, and school) were estimated in order to determine which structures were necessary to correctly partition variance and accurately estimate standard errors for growth parameters. Because the results illustrate that not modeling higher-level clustering inflated lower-level variance estimates and in some cases led to biased standard errors, the authors recommend the practice of including classroom cross-classification and school nesting when predicting longitudinal student outcomes.

Amylose-ligand inclusion complexes represent an interesting approach to deliver bioactive molecules. However, ferulic acid has been shown not to form single helical inclusion complexes with amylose from high amylose maize starch. To overcome this problem a lipophilic ferulic acid ester, octadecyl ferulate, was prepared and complexed with amylose via excess steam jet cooking. Jet-cooking octadecyl ferulate and high amylose starch gave an amylose-octadecyl ferulate inclusion complex in 51.0% isolated yield. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) confirmed that a 61 V-type inclusion complex was formed. Amylose and extraction assays showed the complex to be enriched in amylose (91.9±4.3%) and contain 70.6±5.6mgg(-1) octadecyl ferulate, although, minor hydrolysis (∼4%) of the octadecyl ferulate was observed under the excess steam jet-cooking conditions utilized. This study demonstrates that steam jet cooking is a rapid and scalable process in which to prepare amylose-octadecyl ferulate inclusion complexes., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Children (n = 747; 6.5 years) were assessed on domain-general processes and mathematics and reading-related competencies (start of first grade), addition retrieval (end of second grade), and calculations and word reading (end of third grade). Attentive behavior, reasoning, visuospatial memory, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) indirectly contributed to both outcomes, via retrieval. However, there was no overlap in domain-general direct effects on calculations (attentive behavior, reasoning, working memory) versus word reading (language, phonological memory, RAN). Results suggest ease of forming associative relations and abilities engaged during the formation of these long-term memories are common to both outcomes and can be indexed by addition-fact retrieval, but further growth in calculations and word reading is driven by different constellations of domain-general abilities., (© 2015 The Authors. Child Development © 2015 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

Feruloyl-sn-glycerol (FG) and 1,3-diferuloyl-sn-glycerol (F2G), the by-product of biocatalytic transesterification soybean oil and ethyl ferulate, were examined for their behavior in phospholipid vesicles. Based on absorbance and fluorescence methods, FG and F2G both were found to partition into vesicles and incorporate well into 1,2-dioleoylphosphocholine (DOPC) vesicles. FG and F2G incorporation resulted in vesicles that were as or slightly more stable than the unloaded vesicles. FG and F2G both demonstrated the ability to maintain antioxidant properties within the lipid bilayer. Bilayer depth analysis was conducted using the parallax method and molecular modeling., (Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.)

Octadecyl ferulate was prepared using solid acid catalyst, monitored using Supercritical Fluid Chromatography and purified to a 42% yield. Differential scanning calorimetry measurements determined octadecyl ferulate to have melting/solidification phase transitions at 67 and 39°C, respectively. AFM imaging shows that 5-mol% present in a lipid bilayer induced domains to form. Phase behavior measurements confirmed that octadecyl ferulate increased transition temperature of phospholipids. Fluorescence measurements demonstrated that octadecyl ferulate stabilized liposomes against leakage, maintained antioxidant capacity within liposomes, and oriented such that the feruloyl moiety remained in the hydrophilic region of the bilayer. Molecular modeling calculation indicated that antioxidant activity was mostly influenced by interactions within the bilayer., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

In English, gains in decoding skill do not map directly onto increases in word reading. However, beyond the Self-Teaching Hypothesis (Share, 1995), little is known about the transfer of decoding skills to word reading. In this study, we offer a new approach to testing specific decoding elements on transfer to word reading. To illustrate, we modeled word-reading gains among children with reading disability (RD) enrolled in Phonological and Strategy Training (PHAST) or Phonics for Reading (PFR). Conditions differed in sublexical training with PHAST stressing multi-level connections and PFR emphasizing simple grapheme-phoneme correspondences. Thirty-seven children with RD, 3 rd - 6 th grade, were randomly assigned 60 lessons of PHAST or PFR. Crossed random-effects models allowed us to identify specific intervention elements that differentially impacted word-reading performance at posttest, with children in PHAST better able to read words with variant vowel pronunciations. Results suggest that sublexical emphasis influences transfer gains to word reading.