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Zoonotic diseases cause repeated outbreaks in humans globally. The majority of emerging infections in humans are zoonotic. COVID-19 is an ideal example of a recently identified emerging zoonotic disease, causing a global pandemic. Anthropogenic factors such as modernisation of agriculture and livestock farming, wildlife hunting, the destruction of wild animal habitats, mixing wild and domestic animals, wildlife trading, changing food habits and urbanisation could drive the emergence of zoonotic diseases in humans. Since 2001, Bangladesh has been reporting many emerging zoonotic disease outbreaks such as nipah, highly pathogenic avian influenza, pandemic H1N1, and COVID-19. There are many other potential zoonotic pathogens such as Ebola, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Kyasanur forest disease virus and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever that may emerge in the future. However, we have a limited understanding of zoonotic diseases' overall risk in humans and associated factors that drive the emergence of zoonotic pathogens. This narrative review summarised the major emerging, re-emerging, neglected and other potential zoonotic diseases in Bangladesh and their associated risk factors. Nipah virus and Bacillus anthracis caused repeated outbreaks in humans. More than 300 human cases with Nipah virus infection were reported since the first outbreak in 2001. The highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1) caused more than 550 outbreaks in poultry, and eight human cases were reported so far since 2007. People of Bangladesh are frequently exposed to zoonotic pathogens due to close interaction with domestic and peri-domestic animals. The rapidly changing intensified animal-human-ecosystem interfaces and risky practices increase the risk of zoonotic disease transmission. The narrative review's findings are useful to draw attention to the risk and emergence of zoonotic diseases to public health policymakers in Bangladesh and the application of one-health approach to address this public health threat., (© 2021 The Authors Veterinary Medicine and Science Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Dengue is a re-emerging global public health problem, the most common arbovirus causing human disease in the world, and a major cause of hospitalization in endemic countries causing significant economic burden. Data were analyzed from passive surveillance of hospital-attended dengue cases from 2002 to 2018 at Phramongkutklao Hospital (PMKH) located in Bangkok, Thailand, and Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Hospital (KPPH) located in the lower northern region of Thailand. At PMKH, serotype 1 proved to be the most common strain of the virus, whereas at KPPH, serotypes 1, 2, and 3 were the most common strains from 2006 to 2008, 2009 to 2012, and 2013 to 2015, respectively. The 11-17 years age-group made up the largest proportion of patients impacted by dengue illnesses during the study period at both sites. At KPPH, dengue virus (DENV)-3 was responsible for most cases of dengue fever (DF), whereas it was DENV-1 at PMKH. In cases where dengue hemorrhagic fever was the clinical diagnosis, DENV-2 was the predominant serotype at KPPH, whereas at PMKH, it was DENV-1. The overall disease prevalence remained consistent across the two study sites with DF being the predominant clinical diagnosis as the result of an acute secondary dengue infection, representing 40.7% of overall cases at KPPH and 56.8% at PMKH. The differences seen between these sites could be a result of climate change increasing the length of dengue season and shifts in migration patterns of these populations from rural to urban areas and vice versa.

The World Health Organization defines a zoonosis as any infection naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans. The pandemic of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 has been classified as a zoonotic disease, however, no animal reservoir has yet been found, so this classification is premature. We propose that COVID-19 should instead be classified an " emerging infectious disease (EID) of probable animal origin ." To explore if COVID-19 infection fits our proposed re-categorization vs. the contemporary definitions of zoonoses, we reviewed current evidence of infection origin and transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 virus and described this in the context of known zoonoses, EIDs and "spill-over" events. Although the initial one hundred COVID-19 patients were presumably exposed to the virus at a seafood Market in China, and despite the fact that 33 of 585 swab samples collected from surfaces and cages in the market tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, no virus was isolated directly from animals and no animal reservoir was detected. Elsewhere, SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in animals including domesticated cats, dogs, and ferrets, as well as captive-managed mink, lions, tigers, deer, and mice confirming zooanthroponosis. Other than circumstantial evidence of zoonotic cases in mink farms in the Netherlands, no cases of natural transmission from wild or domesticated animals have been confirmed. More than 40 million human COVID-19 infections reported appear to be exclusively through human-human transmission. SARS-CoV-2 virus and COVID-19 do not meet the WHO definition of zoonoses. We suggest SARS-CoV-2 should be re-classified as an EID of probable animal origin., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Haider, Rothman-Ostrow, Osman, Arruda, Macfarlane-Berry, Elton, Thomason, Yeboah-Manu, Ansumana, Kapata, Mboera, Rushton, McHugh, Heymann, Zumla and Kock.)

Infectious diseases resulting in epidemics and pandemics have moulded human history and continue to do so even today. Cholera, plague, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and influenza have been some of the most brutal killers. The advancement of medical science has helped us win the war against several of these deadly agents. However, despite all our efforts, new agents continue to emerge. Studying the pandemics of the past helps us respond better to those affecting the globe today. In this narrative review, we present the greatest pandemics of the past, and discuss how the lessons from history may aid us in preparing for the future.

Acremonium-like fungi are emerging as important opportunistic pathogens in cutaneous, subcutaneous and serious invasive infections, especially in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals, and Acremonium infections are usually resistant to antifungal therapy. Several molecular studies have demonstrated that many species in the genus Acremonium are polyphyletic, and currently, the genus is restricted to the family Bionectriaceae (Hypocreales). Molecular identification and in vitro antifungal susceptibility tests of Acremonium-like fungi isolated from human clinical specimens in China were performed in this study. Three genetic loci: the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (LSU), ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and elongation factor 1-α (EF1-α), were used to assess their taxonomic position for correct identification among various species. The multilocus study of twenty-eight strains showed that these strains were distributed in three main lineages: egyptiacum, Cordycipitaceae and Sarocladium; Acremonium egyptiacum and Sarocladium kiliense were the main species of these strains, and three isolates were too phylogenetically distant to be considered undescribed species. Relatively low minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.25-2 and 0.031-0.5 μg/mL were found for voriconazole and terbinafine for most species, respectively. Varied antifungal activities of ciclopirox olamine, amorolfine and posaconazole were found in our study. However, no antifungal effect of sertaconazole, itraconazole or fluconazole was observed against most strains. This is the first study on Acremonium-like species diversity by multilocus sequence analyses and antifungal susceptibility of clinically relevant isolates in China.

With the recent changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases in Brazil, research funding has been changing in a manner that does not properly consider biodiversity and poverty-related diseases. The burden of disease and the affected neglected populations need to be part of the equation in developeding countries with limited funding.

Defining an emerging disease is not straightforward, as there are several different types of disease emergence. For example, there can be a 'real' emergence of a brand new disease, such as the emergence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the 1980s, or a geographic emergence in an area not previously affected, such as the emergence of bluetongue in northern Europe in 2006. In addition, disease can emerge in species formerly not considered affected, e.g. the emergence of bovine tuberculosis in wildlife species since 2000 in France. There can also be an unexpected increase of disease incidence in a known area and a known species, or there may simply be an increase in our knowledge or awareness of a particular disease. What all these emerging diseases have in common is that human activity frequently has a role to play in their emergence. For example, bovine spongiform encephalopathy very probably emerged as a result of changes in the manufacturing of meat-and-bone meal, bluetongue was able to spread to cooler climes as a result of uncontrolled trade in animals, and a relaxation of screening and surveillance for bovine tuberculosis enabled the disease to re-emerge in areas that had been able to drastically reduce the number of cases. Globalisation and population growth will continue to affect the epidemiology of diseases in years to come and ecosystems will continue to evolve. Furthermore, new technologies such as metagenomics and high-throughput sequencing are identifying new microorganisms all the time. Change is the one constant, and diseases will continue to emerge, and we must consider the causes and different types of emergence as we deal with these diseases in the future.

Global climate change is known to result in the emergence or re-emergence of some infectious diseases. Reliable methods to identify the infectious diseases of humans and animals and that are most likely to be influenced by climate are therefore required. Since different priorities will affect the decision to address a particular pathogen threat, decision makers need a standardised method of prioritisation. Ranking methods and Multi-Criteria Decision approaches provide such a standardised method and were employed here to design two different pathogen prioritisation tools. The opinion of 64 experts was elicited to assess the importance of 40 criteria that could be used to prioritise emerging infectious diseases of humans and animals in Canada. A weight was calculated for each criterion according to the expert opinion. Attributes were defined for each criterion as a transparent and repeatable method of measurement. Two different Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis tools were tested, both of which used an additive aggregation approach. These were an Excel spreadsheet tool and a tool developed in software 'M-MACBETH'. The tools were trialed on nine 'test' pathogens. Two different methods of criteria weighting were compared, one using fixed weighting values, the other using probability distributions to account for uncertainty and variation in expert opinion. The ranking of the nine pathogens varied according to the weighting method that was used. In both tools, using both weighting methods, the diseases that tended to rank the highest were West Nile virus, Giardiasis and Chagas, while Coccidioidomycosis tended to rank the lowest. Both tools are a simple and user friendly approach to prioritising pathogens according to climate change by including explicit scoring of 40 criteria and incorporating weighting methods based on expert opinion. They provide a dynamic interactive method that can help to identify pathogens for which a full risk assessment should be pursued.

The domestic animals/wildlife interface is becoming a global issue of growing interest. However, despite studies on wildlife diseases being in expansion, the epidemiological role of wild animals in the transmission of infectious diseases remains unclear most of the time. Multiple diseases affecting livestock have already been identified in wildlife, especially in wild ungulates. The first objective of this paper was to establish a list of infections already reported in European wild ungulates. For each disease/infection, three additional materials develop examples already published, specifying the epidemiological role of the species as assigned by the authors. Furthermore, risk factors associated with interactions between wild and domestic animals and regarding emerging infectious diseases are summarized. Finally, the wildlife surveillance measures implemented in different European countries are presented. New research areas are proposed in order to provide efficient tools to prevent the transmission of diseases between wild ungulates and livestock.

There are two main groups of biological agents regarded as occupational hazards: allergenic and/or toxic agents forming bioaerosols, and agents causing zoonoses and other infectious diseases. Bioaerosols occurring in the agricultural work environments comprise: bacteria, fungi, high molecular polymers produced by bacteria (endotoxin) or by fungi (β-glucans), low molecular secondary metabolites of fungi (mycotoxins, volatile organic compounds) and various particles of plant and animal origin. All these agents could be a cause of allergic and/or immunotoxic occupational diseases of respiratory organ (airways inflammation, rhinitis, toxic pneumonitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and asthma), conjunctivitis and dermatitis in exposed workers. Very important among zoonotic agents causing occupational diseases are those causing tick-borne diseases: Lyme borreliosis, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, bartonellosis. Agricultural workers in tropical zones are exposed to mosquito bites causing malaria, the most prevalent vector-borne disease in the world. The group of agents causing other, basically not vector-borne zoonoses, comprises those evoking emerging or re-emerging diseases of global concern, such as: hantaviral diseases, avian and swine influenza, Q fever, leptospiroses, staphylococcal diseases caused by the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains, and diseases caused by parasitic protozoa. Among other infectious, non-zoonotic agents, the greatest hazard for health care workers pose the blood-borne human hepatitis and immunodeficiency viruses (HBV, HCV, HIV). Of interest are also bacteria causing legionellosis in people occupationally exposed to droplet aerosols, mainly from warm water.

We compared human and bovine isolates of Salmonella enterica using antimicrobial-drug resistance profiles and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. From 2000 through 2006, we observed an increase in a novel multidrug-resistant clone of S. Typhimurium with no recognized phage type. This clone may represent an emerging epidemic strain in the Pacific Northwest.

In addition to the proportional increase in cases of non-type b Haemophilus influenzae disease in the post-H. influenzae type b vaccine era, the incidence of invasive H. influenzae disease was found to be approaching the rates of H. influenzae type b disease that were documented in the prevaccine period. Fifty-six percent of invasive disease now occurs in individuals aged >10 years.

We describe the emergence of serotype G12 rotaviruses (67 [6.9%] of 971 specimens tested) among children hospitalized with rotavirus gastroenteritis in Hungary during 2005. These findings are consistent with recent reports of the possible global spread and increasing epidemiologic importance of these strains, which may have implications for current rotavirus vaccination strategies.

The Electronic Surveillance System for the Early Notification of Community-based Epidemics (ESSENCE), developed by the Department of Defense Global Emerging Infections System (DOD-GEIS), actively analyzes syndromic groupings from electronic International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision data as a proxy for early disease outbreak detection. This study compares International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, data and emergency room records from three hospitals to determine the accuracy of data in ESSENCE. Of 2474 records reviewed, inter-reviewer variability illustrated excellent consistency, ranging from 0.87 to 1.0. Gastrointestinal disease had the highest overall sensitivity (89.0%) and specificity (96.0%), likely due to less overlap with other groups, unlike the respiratory (sensitivity, 65.7%; specificity, 95.6%) and fever (sensitivity, 69.4%; specificity, 95.5%) groups, where symptoms of both are often seen in the same patient. This study concludes that data used by ESSENCE is accurate and reflects the types of patient visits to these facilities: valuable information for public health decision makers.

Brazil is a large tropical country (8,514,215 km(2)) with 185,360,000 inhabitants. More than one third of its territory is covered by tropical forests or other natural ecosystems. These provide ideal conditions for the existence of many arboviruses, which are maintained in a large variety of zoonotic cycles. The risk that new arboviruses might emerge in Brazil is related to the existence of large, densely populated cities that are infested by mosquitoes such as Culex and the highly anthropophilic Aedes aegypti. Infected humans or animals may come into these cities from ecological-epidemiological settings where arbovirus zoonoses occur. This study analyzes the risk of emergence of the alphaviruses Mayaro, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis and Chikungunya; the flaviviruses yellow fever, Rocio, Saint Louis encephalitis and West Nile; and the orthobunyavirus Oropouche.

The crisis of emerging infectious disease stems from the absence of comprehensive taxonomic inventories of the world's parasites, which includes the world's pathogens. Recent technological developments raise hopes that the global inventory of species, including potential pathogens, can be accomplished in a timely and cost-effective manner. The phylogenetics revolution initiated by systematists provides a means by which information about pathogen transmission dynamics can be placed in a predictive framework. Increasingly, that information is widely available in digital form on the Internet. Systematic biology is well positioned to play a crucial role in efforts to be proactive in the arena of emerging parasitic and infectious diseases.

In the era of antibiotics and vaccines and prior to the appearance of AIDS, well-known infectious diseases received decreasing clinical attention. Occasionally, the opinion was also expressed that new types of infectious diseases could no longer be expected. However, a more detailed analysis of the state of infectious diseases yields quite a different picture. A variety of new infectious diseases has clinically been defined over the last few decades. New viruses, bacteria, and parasites with pathogenic potential for humans have been detected and well-known microorganisms have spread beyond their original geographic areas. Infectious agents, in particular viruses, permanently alter their genomes and may thus gain new clinical relevance. This article demonstrates that primarily the behavior of man influenced the nature and distribution of infectious diseases in the past and will affect the spread of infectious diseases in the future.

Emerging and re-emerging pathogens present a huge challenge to human and veterinary medicine. Emergence is most commonly associated with ecological change, and specific risk factors are related to the type of pathogen, route of transmission and host range. The biological determinants of host range remain poorly understood but most pathogens can infect multiple hosts, and three-quarters of emerging human pathogens are zoonotic. Surveillance is a key defence against emerging pathogens but will often need to be integrated across human, domestic animal and wildlife populations.

Infectious diseases present a formidable threat to the world today. Not only are new infectious diseases emerging, but those presumed to be contained or eradicated are re-emerging. Developing nations, with the least resources to respond, bear the greatest burden of this threat. However, with the potential to spread rapidly and ubiquitously, infectious diseases present a significant risk to the health and development of all nations. No country or population is immune, and geographic and political barriers offer little protection. Many factors facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, including globalization of travel and trade, weakening of national and international public health infrastructure, deterioration of socioeconomic conditions, and heightened political and civil strife in some developing nations. These conditions render populations more vulnerable to infections and provide an environment conducive to the transmission of infectious diseases. Compounding these risk factors is the emergence of another threat: antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrobial drugs are rapidly losing their effectiveness because of their misuse. As a result, the global health community is confronted with the daunting task of combating more offenders with fewer defenses.