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In comparison with terrestrial mammals, dolphins require a large amount of haemoglobin in blood and myoglobin in muscle to prolong their diving time underwater and increase the depth they can dive. The genus Cetobacterium is a common gastrointestinal bacterium in dolphins and includes two species: C. somerae and C. ceti . Whilst the former produces vitamin B 12 , which is essential for the biosynthesis of haem, a component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, but not produced by mammals, the production ability of the latter remains unknown. The present study aimed to isolate C. ceti from dolphins and reveal its ability to biosynthesize vitamin B 12 . Three strains of C. ceti , identified by phylogenetic analyses with 16S rRNA gene and genome-based taxonomy assignment and biochemical features, were isolated from faecal samples collected from two captive common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ). A microbioassay using Lactobacillus leichmannii ATCC 7830 showed that the average concentration of vitamin B 12 produced by the three strains was 11 (standard deviation: 2) pg ml -1 . The biosynthesis pathway of vitamin B 12 , in particular, adenosylcobalamin, was detected in the draft genome of the three strains using blastKOALA. This is the first study to isolate C. ceti from common bottlenose dolphins and reveal its ability of vitamin B 12 biosynthesis, and our findings emphasize the importance of C. ceti in supplying haemoglobin and myoglobin to dolphins.

Our study aims to assess the population connectivity, evolutionary history, and conservation status of the short-beaked common dolphin in the Black Sea and Turkish Straits System (TSS). We also include DNA sequences from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea to provide a regional perspective to our localized study. Analysis of 366 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA D-loop fragments from 37 samples collected from short-beaked common dolphins in the Black Sea, TSS, and Aegean Sea revealed 13 haplotypes, eight of which have not been previously reported. While analysis of samples archived on GenBank revealed 89 different haplotypes across the region. The haplotype network contains two main peripheral groups that include individuals from all locations. Haplotypes from the Atlantic Ocean are scattered across the network and no obvious population separation was detected. Some shared haplotypes potentially indicate multi-directional colonization events of the Mediterranean Sea from the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, some less widely distributed haplotypes suggest some level of more recent genetic connectivity through the Strait of Gibraltar and the TSS and point out the importance of these straits in the dispersal of short-beaked common dolphins. The haplotype and nucleotide diversity values were lower in the Black Sea, TSS, and western Mediterranean Sea when compared to the Atlantic Ocean, supporting the expansion of Atlantic populations into the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. Differentiation was observed between the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea, TSS and the Black Sea based on Фst but not between Mediterranean and the Black Seas. For common dolphins, which have high dispersal potential, the protection of open seas and narrow seaways to enhance connectivity may be crucial.

A case of intergeneric hybridization in the wild between a female bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), considered members of 'vulnerable' and 'endangered' subpopulations in the Mediterranean, respectively, by the International Union of Conservation of Nature is described in this paper. The birth of the hybrid was registered in the Bay of Algeciras (southern Spain) in August 2016, and the animal has been tracked on frequent trips aboard dolphin-watching platforms. This unique occurrence is the result of an apparent ongoing interaction (10 years) between a female bottlenose dolphin and common dolphins. The calf has a robust body with length similar to Tursiops, while its lateral striping and coloration are typical of Delphinus. It displays the common dolphin's 'criss-cross' pattern. However, the thoracic patch is lighter than in D. delphis and its dorsal area is light grey, with a 'V' shape under the dorsal fin. This paper also provides a comprehensive mini-review of hybridizations of T. truncatus with other species., Competing Interests: The authors RE, LH and EM are employees of Dolphin Adventure. This commercial affiliation does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Natural interspecific hybridization might be more important for the evolutionary history and speciation of animals than previously thought, considering several demographic and life history traits as well as habitat disturbance as factors that promote it. In this aspect, cetaceans comprise an interesting case in which the occurrence of sympatric species in mixed associations provides excellent opportunities for interspecific sexual interaction and the potential for hybridization. Here, we present evidence of natural hybridization for two cetacean species commonly occurring in the Greek Seas (Stenella coeruleoalba and Delphinus delphis), which naturally overlap in the Gulf of Corinth by analyzing highly resolving microsatellite DNA markers and mitochondrial DNA sequences in skin samples from 45 individuals of S. coeruleoalba, 12 D. delphis and three intermediate morphs. Employing several phylogenetic and population genetic approaches, we found 15 individuals that are potential hybrids including the three intermediate morphs, verifying the occurrence of natural hybridization between species of different genera. Their hybrids are fertile and able to reproduce not only with the other hybrids but also with each of the two-parental species. However, current evidence does not allow firm conclusions whether hybridization might constitute a step towards the generation of a new species and/or the swan song of an already existing species (i.e., D. delphis). Given that the focal species form mixed pods in several areas of Mediterranean, this study is an excellent opportunity to understand the mechanisms leading to hybridization in the context of gene flow and urges for the evaluation of the genetic status of common dolphins in the Mediterranean., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The nearest known population of common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) to the Colombian Caribbean occurs in a fairly restricted range in eastern Venezuela. These dolphins have not been previously reported in the Colombian Caribbean, likely because of a lack of study of the local cetacean fauna. We collected cetacean observations in waters of the Guajira Department, northern Colombia (~11°N, 73°W) during two separate efforts: (a) a seismic vessel survey (December 2009-March 2010), and (b) three coastal surveys from small boats (May-July 2012, May 2013, and May 2014). Here we document ten sightings of common dolphins collected during these surveys, which extend the known range of the species by ~1000 km into the southwestern Caribbean. We also collected nine skin biopsies in 2013 and 2014. In order to determine the taxonomic identity of the specimens, we conducted genetic barcoding and phylogenetic analyses using two mitochondrial markers, the Control Region (mtDNA) and Cytochrome b (Cytb). Results indicate that these specimens are genetically closer to the short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) even though morphologically they resemble a long-beaked form (Delphinus sp.). However, the specific taxonomic status of common dolphins in the Caribbean and in the Western Atlantic remains unresolved. It is also unclear whether the distribution of the species between northern Colombia and eastern Venezuela is continuous or disjoined, or whether they can be considered part of the same stock., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The role of ecological and changing environmental factors in the radiation of species diversity is a fundamental question in evolutionary biology. Of particular interest is the potential for these factors to determine the boundary between what we would consider differentiation among populations and incipient speciation. Dolphins in the genus Delphinus provide a useful test case, exhibiting morphological variation in beak length, coloration and body size across their wide geographic distribution, and in particular among coastal and more pelagic habitats. Two species have been proposed, D. delphis and D. capensis, but morphologically similar allopatric populations are not monophyletic, indicating that the mostly coastal 'long-beaked' D. capensis form is not a single globally distributed species. However, the sympatric populations in the Eastern North Pacific currently designated as these two species are both morphologically and genetically differentiated. Here we use microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial DNA markers to investigate the evolutionary mechanisms that led to this incipient speciation event. We used coalescent and assignment methods to investigate the timing and extent of reproductive isolation. Our data indicate that although there is some level of on-going gene flow, the putative species found in the Eastern North Pacific are reciprocally monophyletic. The timing of isolation appears to be associated with regional changes in paleoceanographic conditions within the Holocene timeframe.

The taxonomy of common dolphins (Delphinus sp.) has always been controversial, with over twenty described species since the original description of the type species of the genus (Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758). Two species and four subspecies are currently accepted, but recent molecular data have challenged this view. In this study we investigated the molecular taxonomy of common dolphins through analyses of cytochrome b sequences of 297 individuals from most of their distribution. We included 37 novel sequences from the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean, a region where the short- and long-beaked morphotypes occur in sympatry, but which had not been well sampled before. Skulls of individuals from the Southwestern Atlantic were measured to test the validity of the rostral index as a diagnostic character and confirmed the presence of the two morphotypes in our genetic sample. Our genetic results show that all common dolphins in the Atlantic Ocean belong to a single species, Delphinus delphis. According to genetic data, the species Delphinus capensis is invalid. Long-beaked common dolphins from the Northeastern Pacific Ocean may constitute a different species. Our conclusions prompt the need for revision of currently accepted common dolphin species and subspecies and of Delphinus delphis distribution.

Despite the scarcity of geographical barriers in the ocean environment, delphinid cetaceans often exhibit marked patterns of population structure on a regional scale. The European coastline is a prime example, with species exhibiting population structure across well-defined environmental boundaries. Here we undertake a comprehensive population genetic study on the European common dolphin (Delphinus delphis, based on 492 samples and 15 loci) and establish that this species shows exceptional panmixia across most of the study range. We found differentiation only between the eastern and western Mediterranean, consistent with earlier studies, and here use approximate Bayesian computations to explore different scenarios to explain the observed pattern. Our results suggest that a recent population bottleneck likely contributed significantly to the differentiation of the Eastern Mediterranean population (in Greek waters). This interpretation is consistent with independent census data that suggest a sharp population decline in the recent past. The implication is that an unperturbed population may currently show panmixia across the full study range. This exception to the more typical pattern of population structure seen for other regional dolphin species (and for common dolphin populations elsewhere in the world) suggests particular ecological or life-history traits distinct to this species in European waters., (© 2012 The Authors. Journal of Evolutionary Biology © 2012 European Society For Evolutionary Biology.)

Climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene have greatly influenced the distribution and connectivity of many organisms, leading to extinctions but also generating biodiversity. While the effects of such changes have been extensively studied in the terrestrial environment, studies focusing on the marine realm are still scarce. Here we used sequence data from one mitochondrial and five nuclear loci to assess the potential influence of Pleistocene climatic changes on the phylogeography and demographic history of a cosmopolitan marine predator, the common dolphin (genus Delphinus). Population samples representing the three major morphotypes of Delphinus were obtained from 10 oceanic regions. Our results suggest that short-beaked common dolphins are likely to have originated in the eastern Indo-Pacific Ocean during the Pleistocene and expanded into the Atlantic Ocean through the Indian Ocean. On the other hand, long-beaked common dolphins appear to have evolved more recently and independently in several oceans. Our results also suggest that short-beaked common dolphins had recurrent demographic expansions concomitant with changes in sea surface temperature during the Pleistocene and its associated increases in resource availability, which differed between the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean basins. By proposing how past environmental changes had an effect on the demography and speciation of a widely distributed marine mammal, we highlight the impacts that climate change may have on the distribution and abundance of marine predators and its ecological consequences for marine ecosystems., (© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Identifying which factors shape the distribution of intraspecific genetic diversity is central in evolutionary and conservation biology. In the marine realm, the absence of obvious barriers to dispersal can make this task more difficult. Nevertheless, recent studies have provided valuable insights into which factors may be shaping genetic structure in the world's oceans. These studies were, however, generally conducted on marine organisms with larval dispersal. Here, using a seascape genetics approach, we show that marine productivity and sea surface temperature are correlated with genetic structure in a highly mobile, widely distributed marine mammal species, the short-beaked common dolphin. Isolation by distance also appears to influence population divergence over larger geographical scales (i.e. across different ocean basins). We suggest that the relationship between environmental variables and population structure may be caused by prey behaviour, which is believed to determine common dolphins' movement patterns and preferred associations with certain oceanographic conditions. Our study highlights the role of oceanography in shaping genetic structure of a highly mobile and widely distributed top marine predator. Thus, seascape genetic studies can potentially track the biological effects of ongoing climate-change at oceanographic interfaces and also inform marine reserve design in relation to the distribution and genetic connectivity of charismatic and ecologically important megafauna.

Advances in molecular techniques have enabled the study of genetic diversity and population structure in many different contexts. Studies that assess the genetic structure of cetacean populations often use biopsy samples from free-ranging individuals and tissue samples from stranded animals or individuals that became entangled in fishery or aquaculture equipment. This leads to the question of how representative the location of a stranded or entangled animal is with respect to its natural range, and whether similar results would be obtained when comparing carcass samples with samples from free-ranging individuals in studies of population structure. Here we use tissue samples from carcasses of dolphins that stranded or died as a result of bycatch in South Australia to investigate spatial population structure in two species: coastal bottlenose (Tursiops sp.) and short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis). We compare these results with those previously obtained from biopsy sampled free-ranging dolphins in the same area to test whether carcass samples yield similar patterns of genetic variability and population structure. Data from dolphin carcasses were gathered using seven microsatellite markers and a fragment of the mitochondrial DNA control region. Analyses based on carcass samples alone failed to detect genetic structure in Tursiops sp., a species previously shown to exhibit restricted dispersal and moderate genetic differentiation across a small spatial scale in this region. However, genetic structure was correctly inferred in D. delphis, a species previously shown to have reduced genetic structure over a similar geographic area. We propose that in the absence of corroborating data, and when population structure is assessed over relatively small spatial scales, the sole use of carcasses may lead to an underestimate of genetic differentiation. This can lead to a failure in identifying management units for conservation. Therefore, this risk should be carefully assessed when planning population genetic studies of cetaceans.

Structural analysis of the hemoglobin (Hb) system of Delphinus delphis revealed a high globin multiplicity: HPLC-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) analysis evidenced three major beta (beta1 16,022 Da, beta2 16,036 Da, beta3 16,036 Da, labeled according to their progressive elution times) and two major alpha globins (alpha1 15,345 Da, alpha2 15,329 Da). ESI-tandem mass and nucleotide sequence analyses showed that beta2 globin differs from beta1 for the substitution Val126 --> Leu, while beta3 globin differs from beta2 for the isobaric substitution Lys65 --> Gln. The alpha2 globin differs from the alpha1 for the substitution Ser15 --> Ala. Anion-exchange chromatography allowed the separation of two Hb fractions and HPLC-ESI-MS analysis revealed that the fraction with higher pI (HbI) contained beta1, beta2 and both the alpha globins, and the fraction with lower pI (HbII) contained beta3 and both the alpha globins. Both D. delphis Hb fractions displayed a lower intrinsic oxygen affinity, a decreased effect of 2,3-BPG and a reduced cooperativity with respect to human HbA(0), with HbII showing the more pronounced differences. With respect to HbA(0), either the substitution Probeta5 --> Gly or the Probeta5 --> Ala is present in all the cetacean beta globins sequenced so far, and it has been hypothesized that position 5 of beta globins may have a role in the interaction with 2,3-BPG. Regarding the particularly lowered cooperativity of HbII, it is interesting to observe that the variant human HbA, characterized by the substitution Lysbeta65 --> Gln (HbJ-Cairo) has a decreased cooperativity with respect to HbA(0).

The resolution of taxonomic classifications for delphinid cetaceans has been problematic, especially for species in the genera Delphinus, Tursiops and Stenella. The frequent lack of correspondence between morphological and genetic differentiation in these species raises questions about the mechanisms responsible for their evolution. In this study we focus on the genus Delphinus, and use molecular markers to address questions about speciation and the evolution of population structure. Delphinus species have a worldwide distribution and show a high degree of morphological variation. Two distinct morphotypes, long-beaked and short-beaked, have been considered different species named D. capensis and D. delphis, respectively. However, genetic differentiation between these two forms has only been demonstrated in the Pacific. We analysed samples from eight different geographical regions, including two morphologically defined long-beaked form populations, and compared these with the eastern North Pacific populations. We found high differentiation among the populations described as long-beaked instead of the expected monophyly, suggesting that these populations may have evolved from independent events converging on the same morphotype. We observed low genetic differentiation among the short-beaked populations across a large geographical scale. We interpret these phylogeographical patterns in the context of life history and population structure in related species.