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Urban green infrastructure (UGI) can provide key ecosystem services (ES) for human well-being. For this purpose, it is critical to ascertain which characteristics regulate the provision of ES by UGI. In this study, eight ES (water supply, water regulation, waste regulation, nutrient regulation, soil formation, carbon sequestration, air temperature regulation and air humidity regulation) of thirty UGI sites of Zaragoza (Spain), were evaluated using proxy indicators derived from analyzed soil samples, and in-situ measured air temperature and humidity. A principal component analysis was performed to group different ES, and to study the dispersion of different types of UGI along the distinct ES. Additionally, relationships, between the evaluated ES and predictors; flatness, imperviousness, regularity, naturalness and functioning of the UGI sites were studied through linear and quadratic regressions. Large UGI sites such as riparian zones, meanders and natural forests showed relatively high values of ES in contrast with more artificial sites. Moreover, the study showed that water supply, water regulation, soil formation, carbon sequestration and air temperature regulation were significantly and positively related to ecological naturalness and functioning, while imperviousness was the main predictor explaining the reduction of five ES. Our findings provide evidence for the existence of important interactions between predictor variables and ES in UGI. It also showed that the provision of urban ES can be improved expanding the variety and type of green infrastructure sites, decreasing impervious area, and increasing the naturalness and functioning of UGI.

Planning a well-structured urban green infrastructure (UGI) is essential for cities to counteract the impacts of climate change. Soil carbon and air temperature differences between open and plant-covered sites were used as proxies of carbon sequestration (CS) and temperature regulation (TR) to evaluate the current conditions of UGI in Zaragoza, a medium-sized city in northeastern Spain. Alternative scenarios were constructed, after a stakeholder consultation, at both city and municipal (city plus peri-urban zone) scales, extrapolating the highest values of CS and TR to two groups of UGI types grouped based on the state of their ecological functioning. We employed analysis of variance to compare mean values of CS and TR across diverse scenarios at both city and municipality scales. Statistically significant differences were found in city-scale and municipality-scale scenarios for both CS and TR. Multiplying CS by area did not show significant variation in city scale. Significant differences were found when multiplying TR by area at both scales, with exceptions in certain scenario combinations. These results suggest favoring the restoration of UGI sites in peri-urban zones (such as forests and steppe zones) to increase CS and those in densely urbanized zones (such as urban parks) to provide TR benefits.

Mangrove vegetation is strongly dependent on the climate, the physicochemical variables of the sediment, and the hydrological dynamics. These drivers regulate the distribution of different mangrove ecotypes and their ecosystem services, so the net sediment accumulation rates in different mangrove ecotypes in Celestun Lagoon, a karstic zone in the NW Yucatan Peninsula, SE Mexico, were estimated. The measurements considering mangrove ecotypes and their spatial variability concerning the lagoon's salinity gradient (inner, middle, and outer lagoon zones) in three climate seasons (dry, rain, and “nortes”) were realized. We registered the structural variables of the forest, interstitial water physicochemical characteristics, and sediment variables that could influence the net sediment deposition. Fringe mangroves are exposed to low hydrodynamism and show the highest sedimentation rate (3.37 ± 0.49 kg m−2 year−1) compared to basin (1.68 ± 0.22 kg m−2 year−1), dwarf (1.27 ± 0.27 kg m−2 year−1), and “peten” (0.52 ± 0.12 kg m−2 year−1) mangroves. The highest sedimentation rate was recorded in the rainy season (0.24 ± 0.08 kg m−2 month−1), while spatially, the highest value was registered in the outer zone (0.44 ± 0.09 kg m−2 month−1). If the extension of each mangrove ecotype is considered, dwarf mangroves have the highest annual sediment accumulation (1,465 t year−1 in 14,706 ha). The structural, physicochemical, and sediment variables of the sites by mangrove ecotype show that dwarf mangroves represent a distinct group from those formed by fringe, basin, and peten mangroves. However, the sedimentation is high in fringe mangroves at the front of the lagoon and diminishes inland where peten mangroves exist. The differences are given by tree density, but salinity, as a proxy variable of the freshwater influence, significantly influences the sedimentation rate. These results indicate that mangroves in karstic environments can have critical roles in confronting climate change, c

Mangrove vegetation is strongly dependent on the climate, the physicochemical variables of the sediment, and the hydrological dynamics. These drivers regulate the distribution of different mangrove ecotypes and their ecosystem services, so the net sediment accumulation rates in different mangrove ecotypes in Celestun Lagoon, a karstic zone in the NW Yucatan Peninsula, SE Mexico, were estimated. The measurements considering mangrove ecotypes and their spatial variability concerning the lagoon's salinity gradient (inner, middle, and outer lagoon zones) in three climate seasons (dry, rain, and “nortes”) were realized. We registered the structural variables of the forest, interstitial water physicochemical characteristics, and sediment variables that could influence the net sediment deposition. Fringe mangroves are exposed to low hydrodynamism and show the highest sedimentation rate (3.37 ± 0.49 kg m−2 year−1) compared to basin (1.68 ± 0.22 kg m−2 year−1), dwarf (1.27 ± 0.27 kg m−2 year−1), and “peten” (0.52 ± 0.12 kg m−2 year−1) mangroves. The highest sedimentation rate was recorded in the rainy season (0.24 ± 0.08 kg m−2 month−1), while spatially, the highest value was registered in the outer zone (0.44 ± 0.09 kg m−2 month−1). If the extension of each mangrove ecotype is considered, dwarf mangroves have the highest annual sediment accumulation (1,465 t year−1 in 14,706 ha). The structural, physicochemical, and sediment variables of the sites by mangrove ecotype show that dwarf mangroves represent a distinct group from those formed by fringe, basin, and peten mangroves. However, the sedimentation is high in fringe mangroves at the front of the lagoon and diminishes inland where peten mangroves exist. The differences are given by tree density, but salinity, as a proxy variable of the freshwater influence, significantly influences the sedimentation rate. These results indicate that mangroves in karstic environments can have critical roles in confronting climate change, c

Mangrove vegetation is strongly dependent on the climate, the physicochemical variables of the sediment, and the hydrological dynamics. These drivers regulate the distribution of different mangrove ecotypes and their ecosystem services, so the net sediment accumulation rates in different mangrove ecotypes in Celestun Lagoon, a karstic zone in the NW Yucatan Peninsula, SE Mexico, were estimated. The measurements considering mangrove ecotypes and their spatial variability concerning the lagoon's salinity gradient (inner, middle, and outer lagoon zones) in three climate seasons (dry, rain, and “nortes”) were realized. We registered the structural variables of the forest, interstitial water physicochemical characteristics, and sediment variables that could influence the net sediment deposition. Fringe mangroves are exposed to low hydrodynamism and show the highest sedimentation rate (3.37 ± 0.49 kg m−2 year−1) compared to basin (1.68 ± 0.22 kg m−2 year−1), dwarf (1.27 ± 0.27 kg m−2 year−1), and “peten” (0.52 ± 0.12 kg m−2 year−1) mangroves. The highest sedimentation rate was recorded in the rainy season (0.24 ± 0.08 kg m−2 month−1), while spatially, the highest value was registered in the outer zone (0.44 ± 0.09 kg m−2 month−1). If the extension of each mangrove ecotype is considered, dwarf mangroves have the highest annual sediment accumulation (1,465 t year−1 in 14,706 ha). The structural, physicochemical, and sediment variables of the sites by mangrove ecotype show that dwarf mangroves represent a distinct group from those formed by fringe, basin, and peten mangroves. However, the sedimentation is high in fringe mangroves at the front of the lagoon and diminishes inland where peten mangroves exist. The differences are given by tree density, but salinity, as a proxy variable of the freshwater influence, significantly influences the sedimentation rate. These results indicate that mangroves in karstic environments can have critical roles in confronting climate change, c

Scenario analysis is a useful technique to inform landscape planning of social-ecological systems by modelling future trends in ecosystem service supply and distribution. This is especially critical in floodplain agroecosystems of rural areas, which are at risk of losing riparian forest corridors due to increasing land use conversion for agricultural production and other ecosystem services due to rural abandonment. However, few studies investigating the effects of land management combine social and ecological modelling in scenario analyses. We estimated the supply of 16 ecosystem services under five alternative scenarios along two gradients: agricultural intensification of the floodplain and active ecological restoration of the riparian forest. We used redundancy analyses to detect ecosystem service bundles and interviews to identify societal gains and losses associated with each management scenario. Our results show how land management influences both the supply and distribution of ecosystem services. Scenarios promoting active ecological restoration supplied more services and benefited a larger range of societal sectors than scenarios focused on provisioning services. We also found two consistent bundles across scenarios, one related to less intensive food supply and another one related to outdoor activities. Interestingly, additional services were included in these bundles in the different scenarios, reflecting land management effects. Landscape scale management promoting both the conservation of ecosystem functioning and the sustainable use of provisioning services could supply a more balanced set of ecosystem services and benefit a larger number of societal sectors, contributing to more equitable and sustainable futures in rural areas.

Riparian forests nestled in agricultural landscapes represent a small proportion in crop-intensive areas, while contributing remarkably to their biodiversity. This biodiversity supports several ecological processes crucially involved in the supply of ecosystem services (ES) complementary to that provided by agricultural lands and also relevant for designing biodiverse and multifunctional landscapes. Riparian forest is one of the most threatened ecosystems due to land-use intensification and associated water extraction, especially in Mediterranean semi-arid areas, and proper evaluation of the success of riparian restoration projects is usually lacking. Furthermore, there is little empirical evidence of the effects of riparian restoration on ES supply. In this study, we first investigated the effect of hydrological and soil features on survival and growth of saplings planted in degraded riparian areas in two Mediterranean watersheds. Then, we evaluated how riparian restoration affected the supply of ES, comparing nine regulating and supporting ES on these restored areas with other riparian areas spanning a gradient of conservation status, and with other natural and agricultural land-uses in the same watershed. We found that restoration success mainly depended on water table depth, soil salinity and soil nutrients (namely Mg+2 and Olsen P). Moreover, we detected an antagonistic interaction between the latter two, and a synergetic interaction between water table depth and soil salinity. Forest patches provided meaningful regulating and supporting ES in agricultural landscapes. In particular, riparian restoration zones increased the supply of regulating and supporting ES (water purification, habitat provision, microclimate regulation and soil C storage) in comparison with degraded natural land-uses and crops. Nevertheless, they were still far from the magnitude and range of ES provided by mature riparian forests. These results highlight the importance of focusing managem