Search

Virtual Enterprises International (VE) is a high school program that teaches students about business through task-oriented and hands-on coursework. With the assistance of a coordinator and business mentors, VE students create and oversee a virtual firm, conducting business with other virtual firms nationally and internationally. The program enables students to learn about careers, develop interpersonal and organizational skills, and use technology. In some VE firms, students also study an applied economics curriculum, thereby linking the business enterprise to an academic subject required for high school graduation and increasing the academic content of the VE coursework. Participation in Virtual Enterprises is presumed to benefit students on a range of outcomes, including career preparation, college planning and readiness, and engagement. While the VE Central Office collects its own data on the program, there has been little research conducted externally. Thus, the VE Central Office invited the Institute on Education and the Economy (IEE) at Teachers College, Columbia University, to undertake a one-year, mixed method, multi-site study of the program with a focus on the influence that VE has on students' career and college readiness. The report presented here provides a deep description of the program features and the student and teacher perceptions of VE. It also discusses the relative effectiveness of various aspects of the program, such as technology use, project-based learning, and outside-the-classroom activities. The final section of this report offers recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of the New York City VE program. (Contains 14 figures and 9 footnotes.) [Funding for this study was provided by the Merrill Lynch Foundation to The Fund for Public Schools on behalf of the New York City Department of Education.]

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Amendments of 1998 extended support for "career guidance and academic counseling." A wide variety of such interventions are in existence. Since the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 emphasizes evidence-based education, it is important to examine the research to determine the value of these programs. This synthesis of the research literature, covering meta-analyses and individual studies on comprehensive guidance programs, career courses, counseling interventions and computer-assisted career guidance, finds many benefits to students of career guidance and academic counseling interventions. On a variety of career-related and academic measures, student subjects did have increased outcomes. However, there are also limitations to the interventions and to the research methods studying them. Many of the interventions are short-term, low-dosage activities, with lasting benefits unclear. In addition, much of the research relies on self-reported responses to psychological inventories. Based on the findings of the research review, recommendations are to focus practice and research on middle-school students, and target resources towards ensuring that all middle- and high-school students have regular conferences with counselors to discuss their current and future academic programs. Finally, research should focus on exploring the relationships between guidance interventions and positive student behaviors, rather than attitudes. (Contains a Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Bibliography. [DTI Associates also contributed funds for this paper.]

This report describes the progress of a school improvement initiative in New York City's vocational high schools. The New York City Board of Education contracted with Civic Strategies, a non-profit firm, to implement a vocational school improvement effort for 2 years. Civic Strategies' three-step model of school improvement involved: completion of school needs assessment and staff buy-in, development of school-specific improvement plans, and delivery of tailored professional development activities. The needs assessment highlighted such problems as too little collaboration between the academic and vocational areas, weak links with business and industry, and lack of time. In most schools, there was room for considerable growth in the management capacities of school building leaders and administrators. Data from site observations and interviews with school staff indicated that the Civic Strategies approach was thoughtful, well-founded, and well-implemented, given the conditions at the targeted schools and the very limited budget. Where buy-in was successful, Civic Strategies was able to roll out the rest of the model and make progress toward positive change. This occurred in about two-thirds of the schools. At the other one-third, implementation became stuck at the initial stages. (Contains 29 references.) (SM)

A literature review of 132 studies of School-to-Work programs and consultations with the staff of the National School-to-Work Office, researchers, and practitioners in the field drew conclusions about the effectiveness of the School-to-Work initiative. Some of the study's conclusions were the following: (1) School-to-Work students maintain good grades and take difficult courses; (2) students in School-to-Work stay in school and receive their high school diplomas; (3) it is unclear how School-to-Work participation affects students' test scores; (4) School-to-Work students are prepared for college; (5) School-to-Work students can define their career interests and goals; (6) School-to-Work helps young people become prepared for the world of work; (7) the jobs that students obtain through School-to-Work tend to be different from and of higher quality than the jobs they would normally get; (8) School-to-Work helps students plan for the future and act in ways that will help them achieve their goals; (9) School-to-Work students feel that their teachers and peers are supportive; (10) School-to-Work enhances students' achievement in and perception of school; (11) teachers believe that School-to-Work benefits students; (12) teachers benefit from participating in work-based professional development; (13) employers support the School-to-Work vision and initiative; (14) employer participation in School-to-Work partnerships and in work-based learning activities is widespread; and (15) employers speak well of student interns and see benefits to their firms from participation in the program. (Contains 132 references.) (KC)

A research study compared graduates of career magnet programs to graduates of comprehensive high schools in a large metropolitan area. The career magnet programs studied are located either within regular comprehensive high schools or combined with other magnet programs to fill an entire building. Research was conducted through school records of more than 9,000 students who attended 59 programs and interviews with 110 students who had applied to 4 different career magnet high schools, comparing lottery winners to those who lost the lottery and graduated from a comprehensive high school. Two further studies were made: 4-hour interviews with 30 of the graduates and a lengthy interview with an additional 14 career magnet high schools. The study found that, to a much greater extent than their comprehensive-school counterparts, career-magnet alumni say that their parents will support them for college. At age 20, career magnet graduates report that they smoke less, drink less, study more, and take themselves and their lives more seriously than the graduates of comprehensive schools. The presence of a career focus seems to create a setting where students can move through the indecision of adolescence and build a career identity. However, the career magnet schools had a higher dropout rate than the comprehensive high schools, and many of the programs were of poor quality. Test scores were similar across both types of schools. The study concluded that the career magnet programs studied are a promising model if they can be implemented effectively. (KC)

The claim that work-based experience improves students' academic performance was examined through a study of the academic progress of 25 high school and community college student interns employed in various health care workplaces. Data were collected from the following activities: (1) review of the literature on academic reinforcement and academic outcomes of school-to-work programs; (2) site visits to interview faculty, staff, students, and employers; (3) observation of classroom-based links to the work-based learning components. In 9 of the 25 cases examined, no evidence for any of the following claims for academic reinforcement were found: school-based knowledge is applied; school-based knowledge is explored and tested; and motivation toward school is positively affected. Twelve students experienced instances of simple application of school-based knowledge at work. Evidence of the testing and exploration of school-based knowledge was found in only three cases. Except for those students who were taking courses in clerical skills and data entry in school, the academic reinforcement functions of work experience were minimal. Overall, the interns' work was functional to the employing organization but hardly academic. (Contains 47 references. Appended is a student essay question on productivity in a hospital setting and a sample student response.) (MN)

This document, which is based on 3 years of research on 14 school-to-work programs across the United States, outlines pedagogical strategies for work-based learning. Pedagogy is defined as the organization of the social activities, organizational structures, and cultural practices by which newcomers, such as student interns, come to acquire and engage that knowledge. Presented is a brief description of the research methodology, which was designed to identify successful pedagogical strategies for work-based learning in different types of workplaces. A framework through which educators can analyze the pedagogy of particular work contexts is presented and illustrated through the examples of a student intern at a veterinary hospital and a student intern at a hotel housekeeping office. The examples are discussed in terms of the following pedagogical strategies: front-loaded instruction; on-the-job training; just-in-time instruction; back-loaded instruction; mutual self-instruction; laissez-faire (sink-or-swim instruction); and observation. The various pedagogical tactics that can be used within each strategy are listed and considered in the context of the two student interns. The final section explains how the following school-based pedagogical strategies can support work-based learning: (1) journals; (2) learning plans; (3) internship classes or seminars; and (4) final papers, projects, and presentations. (MN)

The business press abounds with examples of innovative companies that have created high-quality jobs; however, low-wage, deskilled jobs filled by contingent workers are equally prevalent. More than one in six U.S. workers currently hold retail jobs. The effect of globalization of trade on the retail industry is unclear. The most significant development to date is that the retail market has, according to many analysts, become highly congested and overbuilt. The leading retail strategy is the Wal-Mart model, which includes a "low-road" human resource approach. Sales jobs are dead-end jobs, starting pay is at or near minimum wage, raises are given yearly but not guaranteed, and the low pay is exacerbated by short and uncertain work schedules and the lack of opportunity to work sufficient hours each week to produce a livable paycheck. Upward mobility in the retail sector is limited. Most retail firms choose to import educated workers rather than train incumbent workers. The problem of mobility is not limited to the retail sector. Although skilled workers in professional occupations may be able to create new career paths that preserve their opportunities, opportunities for upward mobility do not look promising for the more numerous occupations further down the ladder. (Contains 12 references.) (MN)

Fourteen school-to-work programs characterized by strong work-based learning components and solid employer involvement were examined in a 3-year study to identify pedagogical factors associated with successful work-based learning programs. The main data collection activities were as follows: site visits to the 15 programs to interview faculty, staff, students, and employers and to observe any classroom-based links to the work-based learning components; 2 telephone surveys (a survey of employers participating in the programs and a survey of employers not participating in programs); and case studies of 5 of the programs that included observations and interviews with 26 student interns. The researchers used a task analysis framework that was designed to analyze the situated pedagogy of particular work contexts. The following pedagogical strategies were identified and analyzed: front-loaded instruction; on-the-job training; just-in-time instruction; back-loaded instruction; mutual self-instruction; laissez-faire instruction; observation; and mentoring. Among the pedagogical tactics used within each strategy were the following: lecturing; tours; modeling/demonstrating; dry runs; giving orders; helping out; coaching; critical feedback; testing and checking; storytelling; reminding; trial and error; and practice. The case studies emphasized the importance of educators enhancing students' learning opportunities at the workplace with connected activities and exercises back at school. (Contains 22 references.) (MN)

The banking industry has undergone marked changes over the past 20 years, driven by deregulation and new technologies. Two strategies have emerged: the low-cost transaction approach and the high-road relationship banking approach. The number of employees in commercial banking has fallen significantly, and average hourly earnings for nonmanagerial employees have remained low. A case study of a large, multinational bank showed a reduction in employees. Reengineering has had important effects on the staffing, task content, and quality of jobs at the bank branches. Back-office jobs have been eliminated or moved to national customer-service phone centers, whereas some jobs have been upgraded toward customer service. Teller jobs have become mostly part time, especially for entry. Although the bank requires high levels of communication skills for tellers, it has difficulty attracting the type of people it needs to a job with low status and low pay. Tellers have a high rate of attrition because of low pay and few opportunities for upward mobility. At the same time, tellers are expected to participate more in sales while still making accurate transactions, leading to more job stress. The process of restructuring is ongoing and is redefining the role of bank employees. Low-level employees are expected to have increased commitment to and performance for the firm, whereas rewards--compensation, upward mobility, and rewarding job content--usually lag behind. (KC)

Experiential or work-based learning has been touted as imperative for the development of students and their preparation for the workplace. However, work-based learning does not always occur or occur to a significant extent merely because a student is in the workplace. What matters is the nature of the student's participation in workplace activities. Factors influencing the transfer of learning include the following: the knowledge environment of the workplace, how the knowledge is used, historical characteristics, the micropolitics of knowledge (who gets to know what, who controls access and how), and the learning process. Therefore, it is not enough to claim that a great deal of knowledge is present in the environment; educators need to track the learner's engagement in the use of that knowledge. (Contains 29 references) (KC)

To study employer motivations for participating in school-to-work (STW) programs, researchers sought programs with a strong work-based learning component, specifically those where employers took students as interns or apprentices for one or two school years. In 1995 and 1996, 1 or 2 site visits were made to each of 12 programs. Researchers toured schools; interviewed students, teachers, counselors, principals, and intermediaries who helped broker employer participation; observed classes; visited worksites; and interviewed employers. The 12 work-based learning programs were divided into 3 categories according to whether they lacked students, employers, or neither. Earlier research identified three types of motivation that affect employers' decisions to participate in STW programs: philanthropic, individual, and collective. Researchers engaged in strategic thinking and planning regarding employer recruitment and retention, pondering which type of appeal would convince which type of employer. The philanthropic approach could backfire if the implication was that employers did not already give to their communities. Employers saw these individual benefits: public relations and use of students as needed temporary help. One type of collective motivation was the goal of marketing an industry as a whole to young people. Future research topics were identified: STW acceptance and student demand, integration between work-based and student-based learning, and work-based learning and attention to quality. (YLB)

To examine the impact of rising wage inequality on lifetime wage growth, a study compared the wage mobility experienced by two cohorts of young white men from the National Longitudinal Surveys. The original cohort entered the labor market in the mid-1960s at the end of the economic boom and was followed through the end of the 1970s. The recent cohort entered the labor market in the early 1980s after the onset of economic restructuring and was followed through the mid-1990s. For each cohort, wage profiles were analyzed across 16 years using a mixed-effects model. Analysis indicated that wage growth during the critical years of career development had been hit on two fronts: it had both stagnated and become significantly more unequal. To the extent that wage growth represented upward mobility, the prospects for such mobility had clearly deteriorated in recent years. (Appendixes contain 48 references, 3 data tables, and 8 figures.) (YLB)

Since the School-to-Work Opportunities Act was passed in 1994, there has been debate over whether sufficient numbers of employers can be recruited, in order to create a national school-to-work system with the substantial work-based learning component the legislation calls for. Recent research on the question has had mixed results. In order to obtain more information, a 3-year research project focused on the question. Field work was conducted at 12 school-to-work programs. The study found that many employers are being recruited successfully; in fact, the recruitment and retention of employer partners was not the primary barrier in the implementation of the programs studied. Rather, student recruitment and parent, teacher, and counselor buy-in were all found to be significant obstacles interrelated with the problem of employer participation. There appear to be trade-offs between employer participation, student demand, and program quality. In addition, employer motivations for participation are rarely pure but are mixed and can change over time. The study concluded that employer participation cannot be studied separately from other program features and concerns. (Contains 22 references) (Author/KC)

Employers' motivations for getting involved in school-to-work internships and their perceptions of the quality of work-based learning placements were examined through a telephone survey of 334 employers participating in 5 school-to-work programs (2 in New York, 2 in Pennsylvania, and 1 in Michigan) and a matching sample of 323 establishments not participating in school-to-work. The most important motivation for employer participation in school-to-work was philanthropic; however, a substantial minority of firms said self-interested motives were most important. Large firms were much more likely than smaller firms to provide internships. For-profit establishments constituted just under half the participating establishments but 90% of the comparison firms. Both participating and nonparticipating employers were much more concerned about the costs of training students than about the direct costs of paying students. Most internships provided by the five programs were in a diverse group of occupations, including health, education, and business services. Most participating firms provided a mentor and claimed to document and assess student learning on the job. On average, the internships lasted nearly 23 weeks, with students spending about 14% of their time on job learning. Public and nonprofit organizations tended to provide higher-quality internships; however, the not-for-profits have internships with the shortest learning times. (MN)

To determine whether there has been a secular rise in job instability among young adults over the past 3 decades, a study compared two National Longitudinal Survey cohorts of young white men. The first cohort entered the labor market in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the second during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The study examined longitudinal data on work history and schooling and found a significant increase in the rate of job changing across the two cohorts. The trend toward lower marriage rates and longer transitions into the labor market explained some increase. The economy's shift toward the service sector played an important role, although declines in stability occurred in traditionally unionized industries as well. The overall rise in instability resulted in shorter median tenures. Although greater job instability and shorter tenures are not necessarily a bad thing, findings indicated young workers in recent years failed to capture the all-important wage gains that were associated with job changing in the past. This deterioration in wage gains was felt largely by less educated workers, but inequality in these gains also increased for all education groups. In combination, findings suggested a decline in the long-term economic welfare among those who entered the labor market in the 1980s. (Appendixes contain the following: 43 references; comparison of estimates of job change rates; adjusting for attrition; permanent wage estimation; 5 tables; and 5 figures.) (Author/YLB)

A study was conducted to determine the long-term consequences of restructuring on the nature of work and mobility in the United States. The study compared the first 16 years of work experience for two cohorts of young white men from the National Longitudinal Surveys: the original cohort, followed from 1996-1981, and the recent cohort, followed from 1979-1994. Some of the findings are as follows: (1) in recent years, young workers' transition to the labor market has become more volatile and is also taking longer; (2) job instability has increased for young workers during the 1980s and early 1990s; (3) as a result of this higher job instability, youth in recent years have worked for more employers and have shorter tenures with one employers; (4) the recent cohort has failed to capture the all-important wage gains from early job searching, and the gains have become more unequal; and (5) wages are declining and wage mobility is more unequal. The study concluded that, on average, about two-thirds of job changes and wage growth occur during the first decade of labor market experience. Without a dramatic shift in the economy, therefore, the recent cohort can expect lower and more unequal lifetime wage growth than their predecessors. (Contains 20 references) (KC)

One of the most pressing questions facing researchers and policy makers today is how economic restructuring has affected the nature of work and mobility in the United States. Emerging research has begun to focus on analyses of longitudinal datasets, taking up such questions as whether wage growth has deteriorated and whether the rate of job changing has increased. A study compared two cohorts of young men from the National Longitudinal Surveys. The original cohort entered the labor market in the late 1960s at the tail of the economic boom and was followed through the 70s decade; the recent cohort entered the labor market in the early 1980s after the onset of economic restructuring and was followed through the early 90s. The research design observed both cohorts for 16 years at exactly the same ages--respondents were in their late teens and early 20s at the start of the survey and in their mid-30s by the end. Findings indicated that, in recent years, young workers' transition to the labor market has become more volatile and is also taking longer. Job instability has increased for young workers during the 1980s and early 1990s. As a result of this higher job instability, youth in recent years have worked for more employers and have shorter tenures with one employer. The recent cohort has failed to capture the all-important wage gains from early job searching, while at the same time experiencing greater inequality in those gains. The upshot is declining wage mobility and more unequal wage mobility. (YLB)

This report makes the case for school-to-work as a college preparatory strategy by presenting relevant evidence and by suggesting policies that will facilitate the college preparatory potential of school-to-work. The report begins by explaining why parents, students, and educators should care whether school-to-work can successfully prepare students for college. Then, the report describes the basic characteristics of school-to-work, emphasizing how these characteristics differ from other more school-based reform efforts. It discusses these three basic elements of school-to-work: "learner centered" or "authentic" teaching; guided educational experiences outside the traditional classroom, particularly in the workplace; and a structured approach to help youth begin to form ideas about their future aspirations and how to achieve them. The next section presents empirical evidence that school-to-work programs have been successful in teaching academic skills and preparing students for college. Also discussed is the college admissions process and strategies that reformers are using to help school-to-work students gain access to selective colleges, such as accommodation of the school-to-work program within the existing college admissions system; the communication between individual schools and colleges; and attempts at broad change in assessment and college admissions procedures. Contains 55 references. (YLB)

A study examined the effects of high-performance innovations on workers and job quality by conducting six case studies of firms that had implemented reforms in both the production and the service end of their operations. All the firms were in the traditionally low-wage retail industry. These case studies were drawn on to examine, first, the nature and range of firm restructuring in the retail industry and, second, the effect of these strategies on several dimensions of job quality. An important cluster of innovations was found in each of the two functions of retailing--merchandising and selling. Although all the companies had performed well during the period of human resource reforms, the causal link between those reforms and stronger performance was far from clear. These effects on job quality were identified: creation of somewhat more interesting and varied jobs; few changes in wages and benefits for sales staff; and declining career mobility for some groups of workers through the emergence of a two-tiered job structure. Findings suggested the following: the spread of the high-performance workplace was limited; the low road may be more efficient in some contexts; the high road could be low wage; and the better jobs went to recruits with more skills and education. (YLB)

Program planners considering developing mentoring programs must first consider mentoring's place in the development of career identification/choice and must establish performance standards for mentoring services in career development. Even in the most superficial or limited mentoring experiences, mentors and youths participate in a series of social and psychological interactions resulting in the following outcomes for students: (1) greater access to knowledge; (2) reduced social distance from the world of work; (3) increased achievement orientation; (4) enhanced sense of the ability to achieve; and (5) capacity to use others to further personal career aims. The quality of mentoring and its effect on students can be measured by "authentic assessment" tools, such as portfolios, exhibitions, and student records. In the career development process, mentoring can occur in formal classroom instruction, work experiences, special programs, and/or special services. The quality of mentoring in school settings depends on staff members' ability to incorporate career development concepts/activities into the informal curriculum and consult with/use employers, community groups, and the general public to support schools' career development processes. In many schools, small curriculum/instructional units may be better arrangements for creative use of outsiders than large-scale mentoring programs are. (MN)

Benchmarking is a process by which organizations compare their practices, processes, and outcomes to standards of excellence in a systematic way. The benchmarking process entails the following essential steps: determining what to benchmark and establishing internal baseline data; identifying the benchmark; determining how that standard has been achieved and comparing it to current practices within the organization being evaluated; and deciding to make changes or improvements to meet/exceed the benchmark. Although educators normally look only at other schools for practices to borrow, successful benchmarking involves looking both inside and outside the field of education. Benchmarking focuses on outcomes rather than processes. Benchmarking can be applied to tech prep as an organizational alternative to the traditional secondary school college prep and general education program. The following components of tech prep are particularly well suited to benchmarking: articulation, program assessment and improvement, career guidance, and marketing. Because benchmarking provides focused and immediately useful data, creates a culture that values continuous improvement to achieve excellence, and increases sensitivity to changes in the external environment, its results are far greater than those achieved by informal evaluation approaches. (Contains 11 references.) (MN)

Comprehensive high schools have developed into systems serving the high-achieving, college-bound students and the students who need remediation in basic skills, with little attention being paid to the large number of students who fall between these two levels. Little attention is paid to educating students for midlevel jobs that require more education today than they did previously. Attempting to change this situation, educators have developed a variety of learning arrangements and alternative approaches. They include the following: (1) cognitive apprenticeship, a problem-centered approach in which students become active learners through problem solving; (2) tech prep, which links vocational education in a secondary school to postsecondary technical education; (3) integrated academic and vocational education; (4) career magnet schools and academies that integrate academic and vocational education with a theme or focus school; (5) work-based youth apprenticeship, with a structured curriculum and a significant amount of education taking place on the job; (6) cooperative education, a less-structured approach, with students going to school part time and working part time; and (7) school-based enterprise, activities that encourage students to learn and use academic and entrepreneurship skills. These options should be measured against seven criteria to ensure that a model can be developed for building the middle. The models most likely to succeed should have the following design elements: the pedagogic and curricular principles of cognitive apprenticeship, the organizational elements of academic and vocational integration, the articulation and occupational cluster principles of tech prep, and the rigorous skills certification system of work-based youth apprenticeship. (KC)

One educational change that is beginning to take hold is the use of alternative ways of testing and assessment, often referred to as authentic assessment. Advocates of authentic assessment believe that conventional testing is distorting educational goals, while authentic assessment can foster good educational practices. In fact, many educators view authentic assessment as an enterprise altogether different from testing. An extended time frame for authentic assessment allows tracking student involvement with multiple tasks in documentation practices such as portfolios and exhibitions. In support of authentic assessment, advocates argue for its excellence and support the use of constructed responses and direct assessment in pursuit of greater equity and efficiency. The goals of authentic assessment are: (1) reforming curriculum and instruction; (2) improving teacher morale and performance; and (3) strengthening student commitment and capacity for self-monitoring. It must be recognized that authentic assessment makes far greater demands on both teacher and student than conventional assessment, and that these demands require massive administrative support. (Contains 10 references.) (SLD)

A study compared the ninth-grade performance of students who were randomly admitted to New York City career magnet high schools to those who were randomly not offered seats in those schools. The research measured the effect of career magnets on students of average and low reading ability whose academic records were not strong enough to gain them admission to a selective magnet school. Analysis was based on results for 3,272 students with average reading scores and 986 students whose reading tests put them in the bottom 16 percent. Some of the results of the study were the following: (1) there was an extraordinarily high increase in high school enrollment of low readers who were assigned to freestanding career magnet programs; (2) in freestanding career magnets, low readers were two to four times more likely to pass the Regents mathematics test than similar students in comprehensive schools; (3) average readers in magnet schools increased their reading skills more than twice as much as comparable students in regular comprehensive schools; (4) average readers in freestanding magnets earned one-fourth more course credits than average students in comprehensive schools; and (5) poor readers in magnet schools did less well than their counterparts in comprehensive schools in reading ability and credits earned. Poor readers in magnet schools also had more absenteeism, probably because they had to transport themselves across the city using public transportation. The study concluded that career magnet programs lead to higher achievement and lower dropout rates for inner-city youth and that the random assignment press provides substantial opportunities for students who are usually turned away by magnet school admission committees. (KC)

A study examined the patterns of schooling and employment reported by noncollege-bound high school graduates between June 1980 and March 1986. Data were obtained from the High School and Beyond (HSB) study extrapolated from a sample of 6,030 graduates who did not enter college in the fall of 1980. The sample had a higher minority population (25 percent) and was somewhat below the HSB average in socioeconomic status; the sample had about equal numbers of males and females. For each month and quarter during the study period, graduates were classified as follows: (1) neither working nor in school; (2) working but not in school; (3) in school but not working, or (4) working and in school. The study found that about 39 percent of the youth were neither working nor in school at the start of the period, but only 20 percent were in this category 6 years later. The study also found that 60 percent of the youth were working but not in school in 1980, increasing to 71 percent by 1986, and that the percent of students in school but not working went from .2 percent to 2 percent in the time frame. Students who were both working and in school increased from less than one-half percent to 7 percent during the 6 years. The most striking finding was that 20 percent of the youths were neither working nor in school 6 years after high school graduation, with this state more common among females than males, and among Hispanics and Blacks than among Whites. However, only a small fraction of the sample could be classified as "underclass." The study also concluded that high school program and test scores made little difference in the positions of graduates 6 years later. An emerging pattern of students being both in school and working, with both delayed college entrance and prolonged attendance, was noted. (KC)

An exploratory investigation attempted to determine how learning at work actually takes place and in what ways learning on the job differs from classroom learning. The study was based on extensive observations and interviews over a 5-year period at two manufacturing plants that implemented a computer-based system known as Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP). (MRP is both a computer system and a theory of manufacturing, designed to integrate information from all aspects of a company's operations to guide employees making production and inventory decisions.) The occupation of planner was selected for the core study since a planner within an MRP environment uses the system in relation to everyday production knowledge. Three knowledge domains were identified: MRP as a theoretical system, practical production knowledge, and functional production knowledge. The study found the following: (1) daily, everyday work activities are settings for learning; (2) without extensive academic, professional, or even on-the-job training, people can achieve conceptual understanding on the job; (3) how the workplace is set up, not the presence of technology, enhances or inhibits learning; and (4) because people come to their jobs from a large variety of routes, educational planners need to consider providing multiple and alternative educational forms as being as important as trying to design the one best training program. The study concluded that the workplace clearly is a learning environment and that people can learn formal concepts through work, not only in the classroom. (KC)

The future of low-wage jobs is examined through a case study of firm restructuring in the retail industry. The study confirms that the retailing sector has come to be dominated by the Wal-Mart model, which emphasizes an efficient technology-driven inventory management system and a human resource approach that includes the following elements: dead-end sales jobs with starting pay at or near minimum wage; small, nonguaranteed raises; constantly changing work schedules that define full-time employment as 28 hours per week; and few fringe benefits. Many analysts argue that a human resource strategy based on improving workers' skills and input could be viable in retail trade, yet the Wal-Mart model stresses fast service and cheap products rather than sales staff trained to provide quality customer service. Although technology has enabled the Wal-Mart model of efficiency, it has generally resulted in the elimination of sales and stocking jobs rather than in the upskilling of front-line retail jobs. Because retail workers receive an average of only 7 hours of training, they acquire few valuable skills that can be taken to the open market. Retail workers' upward mobility is also quite limited as firms are increasingly hiring outside workers to fill managerial slots. (Contains 66 references.) (MN)

This document, a review of labor market effects of human capital, focuses on two related topics. Part I describes the following early findings of the research on effects of education and job training on the wage structure, labor turnover, and unemployment: decline of training with experience, positive and significant effects of training on length of completed tenure, less turnover over longer periods for workers who received training, positive effect of training on wage growth, positive effect of training on wage growth in wage trajectories that transcend tenure in one firm, and reduced unemployment for those with job training. This part concludes with an attempt to estimate volumes and profitability rates of job training directly from data on incidence, duration, and wage growth effects of observed training. Part II reports on findings about effects of technological change on the use of human capital and on consequent effects of productivity growth on wages, turnover, and unemployment. Among other things, these findings indicate that: acceleration of technological changes in a sector raises the share of educated workers within it; sectors with more rapid productivity growth show higher rates of return to education; turnover rates decline in sectors with long-run high rates of productivity growth; and technological change tends to reduce unemployment. Contains 33 references and 14 tables for Part I and 21 references and 9 tables for Part II. (YLB)

This document summarizes the conclusions of research papers and participant discussions at a conference on employer-sponsored training in 1988. Following an introduction, the first section offers support for the statement that employers invest heavily in training their best-educated and trained employees. The following are among the conclusions reported: (1) employer-sponsored training accounts for about two-fifths of U.S. investments in human capital; (2) company-sponsored training is complementary to, not a substitute for, investments in academic and problem-solving skills; (3) low income employees are poorly educated and receive little training from employers; (4) nonwhite employees are less likely than white employees to be trained by employers; and (6) women are more likely to enroll in training programs without employer sponsorship and are less likely to receive training from employers. The second section addresses the statement that employer-sponsored training raises employees' wages and improves their employability more than other forms of training. Among the conclusions reported are the following: (1) whether employers over- or underinvest in training is not known; and (2) trained workers are less likely to quit their jobs. The third section supports the statement that slowing work force growth, expanding trade, and accelerating technological advances are changing the nature of work, the skills required, and the level and type of employers' investments in training. The fourth section considers what is involved in the participants' pledge to promote employer-sponsored training, strengthen academic and problem-solving skills, use training institutions more effectively, and rethink the postsecondary education and training system for the disadvantaged. The document concludes with 15 unanswered questions that suggest further research. (CML)

Overall, federal and state tax codes treat employer investments in human capital more favorably than investment in physical plant and equipment. The most important advantage is that training expenditures can be dispensed immediately, rather than depreciated over time, possibly resulting in a subsidy of 33 percent. In addition, employers who use public institutions to train their workers will rarely have to pay the full cost of these services. Employer-provided training is important for the overall growth of the economy and an important way in which many people acquire more marketable skills. However, there is no strong case for further subsidies to encourage employers to invest more in the work force. The evidence of overall underinvestment in the United States does not imply that there is underinvestment in human capital acquired on the job. Employers can use contracts to capture the benefits of the training for which they pay. However, employer-provided training rarely compensates for poor education--rather, it is concentrated on employees who are well-educated. Many useful mechanisms for subsidizing employer training of the work force are in place. Most public training institutions are already developing programs to train workers for local businesses and to train economically disadvantaged workers. Because employer training is complementary to basic education, the best way to encourage employers to invest more in the work force is to reduce the number of high school dropouts and to improve the quality of basic education. (Author/KC)

This document discusses some dimensions of post-school training in the United States--who gets trained, what are the types of training, who provides it, and how training affects subsequent labor market outcomes. An introduction discusses reasons for the research questions and the reliability of existing reported measures of training. An overview describes the most important data sources which contain self-reported training measures and the limitations of this information. The overview also contains a broad description of who gets trained, by whom, the types of training provided, and estimates of how much training is provided. The determinants of training are taken up in the next section. The determinants investigated include educational attainment, industrial rates of technical change, labor market experience, race, union membership, and labor market conditions. The final section addresses the effects of training on earnings, earnings growth, and employment stability. The document includes a 30-item bibliography and an appendix with five tables. Twenty other tables appear in the text. (CML)

This paper summarizes a comparative study of the impact of market and technological changes on human resources in banks and insurance companies in five countries: France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and the United States. The research was organized around case studies of changes in 12 firms--9 banks and 3 insurance carriers. The paper discusses the findings by focusing on what they might tell about: (1) the changing nature of employer-based training; (2) the distributional implications of the emergence of core-periphery employment structures within firms for those who may benefit or fail to benefit from employer-based training; and (3) the alleged lack of competitiveness of U.S. firms in world markets. Following the introduction, the paper is divided into four major sections. The first section describes the origins and nature of recent market changes as well as the connection between those changes and technological changes. In the second section, the effect of change on the kind of human resources needed by firms is described, emphasizing the emergence of a new matrix of needed skills. The third section reviews how firms are adjusting to these new needs both by altering the training of their own workers and by reshaping their relationship to the external labor market. The fourth section concludes with a review of current policies and trends that provide lessons for the United States. (KC)

Very little is known about how companies make decisions about budgets for training. Previous research on employee training has focused on the impact of training on an individual's success in the labor market. Economists have also studied why employers are more likely to train certain persons than others. This study, on the other hand, uses a unique data base on human resource practices in U.S. businesses (the Columbia Business School Human Resources Survey) to study the variation in the training effort across companies. A simple economic model is used to derive several testable hypotheses about the variables that can explain why some businesses invest more in employee training than others. The role of firm characteristics as well as characteristics of the company's industry are studied. The model correctly predicted that large businesses, those with high capital-labor ratios, and those with a high proportion of internal promotions were more likely to have formal training programs. In the case of cost, however, the model performed poorly. Further research is needed to obtain alternative measures of the extent of training and its cost-effectiveness in terms of the organization. (KC)

Profound changes in the economy and the labor market have an effect on the role of employer-sponsored training in preparing and educating the country's work force. On the demand side of the labor market, these changes include the increase in international trade, the changing economic status of the United States relative to its trading partners, the continuing increase in the role of services in all sectors of the economy, and the diffusion of computers and sophisticated communications equipment. Supply-side developments include the increasing average levels of education and the depletion of reserves of labor, either from rural areas, from among women not engaged in paid labor, or from the relatively large cohorts of young people who can be brought into the economy at low levels. In many industries, these developments have brought about profound changes in markets, technologies, work organization, and industry structure, which in turn have reshaped human resource strategies and educational training requirements. As a result of the changes in the economy and the labor market, firm-based education will play a more important role in preparing the country's work force than it has in the past. Firms that can successfully integrate work and learning into the ongoing operation of the business will have an important advantage. (41 references.) (KC)