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The increased absorption of atmospheric CO2 by the ocean reduces pH and affects the carbonate chemistry of seawater, thus interfering with the shell formation processes of marine calcifiers. The present study aims to examine the effects of ocean acidification and warming on the shell morphological properties of two intertidal gastropod species, Nassarius nitidus and Columbella rustica. The experimental treatments lasted for 3 months and combined a temperature increase of 3°C and a pH reduction of 0.3 units. The selected treatments reflected the high emissions (RCP 8.5) “business as usual” scenario of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change models for eastern Mediterranean. The morphological and architectural properties of the shell, such as density, thickness and porosity were examined using 3D micro-computed tomography, which is a technique giving the advantage of calculating values for the total shell (not only at specific points) and at the same time leaving the shells intact. Nassarius nitidus had a lower shell density and thickness and a higher porosity when the pH was reduced at ambient temperature, but the combination of reduced pH and increased temperature did not have a noticeable effect in comparison to the control. The shell of Columbella rustica was less dense, thinner and more porous under acidic and warm conditions, but when the temperature was increased under ambient pH the shells were thicker and denser than the control. Under low pH and ambient temperature, shells showed no differences compared to the control. The vulnerability of calcareous shells to ocean acidification and warming appears to be variable among species. Plasticity of shell building organisms as an acclimation action toward a continuously changing marine environment needs to be further investigated focusing on species or shell region specific adaptation mechanisms.

In recent years, modified Mediterranean marine shells (especially Columbella rustica) have been documented in Mesolithic sites in the Southern Pyrenees and Ebro Basin. Some scholars suggest that the presence of this gastropod allows us to identify a long-distance social network that created a common "cultural landscape". We introduce new data obtained in the South-eastern Pyrenean site of Balma Guilanyà. The chronometric and technical contextualization of this assemblage reveals the transformations that affected the technical, social and cultural spheres of the Postglacial hunter-gatherers from the South Pyrenees and Ebro Valley. En los últimos años se han documentado conchas marinas, principalmente de la especie Columbella rustica, en yacimientos mesolíticos situados al Sur de los Pirineos y en la Cuenca del río Ebro. Algunos investigadores sugieren que la presencia de C. rustica permite la identificación de redes sociales a larga distancia creando un paisaje cultural. En este artículo damos a conocer nuevos datos del yacimiento de Balma Guilanyà, en el SE de los Pirineos. Su contextualización temporal y técnica indica la existencia de transformaciones que afectaron desde el punto de vista técnico, social y cultural a los grupos de cazadores-recolectores del Posglaciar al sur de los Pirineos y en el Valle del Ebro. Azken urteotan, itsas maskorrak dokumentatu dira, Columbella rustica espeziekoak nagusiki, Pirinioen hegoaldeko eta Ebro ibaiaren arroko Mesolitoko aztarnategietan. Ikertzaile batzuen arabera, C. rustica ageri izanak adierazten du urruneko gizarte-sareak identifikatzen direla, eta, horren ondorioz, paisaia kultural bat sortzen dela. Artikulu honetan, Balma Guilanyà aztarnategiari (Pirinioetako HE) buruzko datu berriak jakinarazten ditugu. Aztarnategiaren denbora-testuinguruak eta testuinguru teknikoak adierazten dute transformazioak izan zirela, eta transformazio horiek Glaziar ondoko garaiko Pirinioen hegoaldeko eta Ebro Bailarako ehiztari-biltzaileei eragin ziela ikuspuntu tekniko, sozial eta kulturalari dagokionez.

This paper presents an overview of three Paleolithic sites excavated in southwestern Syria between 1999 and 2007. The sites were discovered as part of a large-scale, regional survey conducted in Damascus Province by a multidisciplinary research team from the University of Tubingen. We focus on the Epipaleolithic shell assemblages from Baaz Rockshelter, Kaus Kozah Cave and Ain Dabbour Cave, examining the distribution of species and their potential relationship to group and personal identity. The four most frequent taxa include the gastropods, Columbella rustica , Theodoxus cf. jordani , and Tritia gibbosula (formerly known as Nassarius gibbosulus ), as well as scaphopods. Most of the shells are perforated or, in the case of scaphopods, segmented. These taxa count among the most common shell beads observed at Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic sites of the Levant, although their proportions change over time. Other taxa are also present, but to a much lesser degree, and often occur as unique specimens. We compare the shell assemblages from these localities to similar contexts in Syria, Israel and Jordan. The shell taxa observed are consistent with other Epipaleolithic sites. We hypothesize that the most common shells at Baaz, Kaus Kozah and Ain Dabbour signify group identity, although the proportion of scaphopods is considerably less than that observed from the wider region. We also posit that the unique specimens are an indication of personal identity, standing in contrast to the shared group identity shown by the most common shell taxa.

In marine environments, connectivity among populations of benthic invertebrates is provided primarily by dispersion of larvae, with the duration of pelagic larval phase (PLD) supposed to represent one of the major factor affecting connectivity. In marine gastropods, PLD is linked to specific larval development types, which may be entirely intracapsular (thus lacking a pelagic dispersal), or include a short pelagic lecithotrophic or a long planktotrophic phase. In the present study, we investigated two sibling species of the cosmopolitan neogastropod genus Columbella (commonly known as dove shells): Columbella adansoni Menke, 1853, from the Macaronesian Atlantic archipelagos, with planktotrophic development, and Columbella rustica Linnaeus, 1758, from the Mediterranean Sea, with intracapsular development. We expected to find differences between these two sister species, in terms of phylogeographic structure, levels of genetic diversification and spatial distribution of genetic diversity, if PLD was actually a relevant factor affecting connectivity. By analysing the sequence variation at the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) in 167 specimens of the two species, collected over a comparable geographic range, we found that Columbella adansoni, the species with planktotrophic development, and thus longer PLD, showed no phylogeographic structure, lower levels of genetic diversity, interpopulational variance lower than the intrapopulational one and no spatial structure in the distribution of the genetic diversity; Columbella rustica, the species with intracapsular development, thus with evidently lower dispersal abilities, showed a clear phylogeographic structure, higher levels of genetic diversity, high interpopulational and low intrapopulational variance, and a clear signature of global spatial structure in the distribution of the genetic diversity. Thus, in this study, two sibling species differing almost only in their larval ecology (and PLD), when compared for their genetic variation showed patterns supporting the hypothesis that PLD is a major factor affecting genetic connectivity. Therefore, it seems reasonable to expect that the ecological attributes of the marine communities - also in terms of the variation in larval ecology of the species involved - are taken into the due consideration in conservation actions, like the design of marine protected areas networks.

The 1980s excavations at the El Collado, a large open-air Mesolithic site on the Eastern coast of Spain, revealed a sequence of human occupations consisting of a large shell midden and 14 human burials dated to the Mesolithic period. Human palaeodietary reconstructions based on bone collagen δ13C and δ15N isotope ratios, identified a variable contribution of marine proteins, ranging from fully terrestrial diets to a maximum input of 25%. Most subsequent research on Mediterranean coastal and dietary adaptations refers to the site's funerary record and palaeodietary study, but the composition of its shell midden has remained unstudied. This work reports the first systematic study of a representative sample of mollusc and a comparatively small assemblage of fish bone recovered from the different stratigraphic horizons of El Collado site. Results indicate a mixed marine–terrestrial mollusc composition of the shell midden. The edible land snail Sphincterochila candidissima and the marine bivalve Cerastoderma glaucum are the best represented species throughout the archaeological sequence. The pattern of intertidal resource exploitation is clearly dominated by bivalves (C. glaucum, Glycimeris violacescens, and Ruditapes decussatus) and gastropods (Cerithium vulgatum, Hexaplex trunculus) inhabiting mud and sand flats in coastal lagoon environments. The presence of rocky shore intertidal species is minimal, mostly related to the manufacture of pierced shell ornaments made from Columbella rustica. On the other hand, fish bone assemblages are overwhelmingly dominated by the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) a coastal species frequent in brackish water coastal lagoons and estuaries, both on rocky and sandy grounds. The biometric analysis of C. glaucum records differences on shell size amongst the different layers, suggesting variations of marine productivity throughout the archaeological sequence.

The ornaments from the Sector C of Cova Fosca are presented in this paper. The assemblage of 166 pieces is distributed in different cultural and chronological categories. In the Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic layers they are mostly perforated shells of the Columbella rustica type. From the Neolithic 1B onwards an array of better crafted elements and more diverse raw materials are documented, such as discoidal beads of the Cerastoderma sp. type and bracelets of Glycymeris sp, tooth and stone pendants, as well as pins and even one idol. At the end of the sequence (Neolithic 1C), the set of ornaments is less varied in quantity and diversity but they still show the same quality of manufacture.

Shells of marine molluscs exploited by prehistoric humans constitute archives of palaeoecological and palaeoclimatic data, as well as of human behaviour in coastal settings. Here we present our investigations on the mollusc assemblage from Ksâr 'Akil (Lebanon), a key site in southwestern Asia occupied during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. The site plays an important role in understanding modern human dispersals into Eurasia. Taxa from intertidal rocky shore, subtidal soft bottom, and rocky littoral habitats dominate the marine component of the invertebrate assemblage. Terrestrial snails indicate wooded and open half shaded habitats in the vicinity of the site. Species composition suggests that these habitats were present throughout the Upper Palaeolithic. Humans transported marine molluscs to the rockshelter as ‘food packages’ for dietary purposes (e.g., Patella caerulea, Patella rustica, Phorcus turbinatus) and shells of other taxa to be used as tools (e.g., Glycymeris sp.) or possibly for ornamental purposes (e.g., Nassarius gibbosulus and Columbella rustica). In the Initial Upper Palaeolithic, collection focussed on empty shells as raw material for utilitarian purposes. In the subsequent Early Upper Palaeolithic and later periods, mollusc gathering was performed in an increasing number of habitats and shifted towards collection for human consumption, which was the main reason for the introduction of shells to the site during the Epipalaeolithic. Concurrent size shifts of live collected as well as beached specimens suggests that size changes were linked to environmental change rather than to potential overexploitation of dietary taxa by humans.

Mollusc communities associated with the seagrass Posidonia oceanica were investigated in Cap Zebib (North-Eastern Tunisia). Samples were collected monthly from May 2007 to May 2008, in two stations located at 3 and 12 m depths using a corer of 25 cm diameter. A total of 753 individuals belonging to 47 species were identified. The species richness ( S ) and Shannon–Wiener diversity index ( H ′) showed significant variation in relation with depth and sampling period, with higher values at 3 m depth. The community structure at 3 m depth varied considerably from one month to another, while 12 m depth did not show any significant temporal variability. The results of similarity percentage (SIMPER) and Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA) showed that the species Clanculus cruciatus, Cantharus dorbignyi, Columbella rustica and Cardita calyculata contributed most to the distribution pattern of the mollusc community at 3 m depth. In contrast, at 12 m depth, the highest contributions were given by the species Jujubinus exasperatus , Smaragdia viridis and Tricolia pullus . Taking into consideration a possible relationship between the faunal composition and plant ( P. oceanica ) features, a negative correlation was found between the number of mollusc species, Shannon–Wiener diversity and water depth. In contrast, a positive correlation was noted between the number of species and meadow shoot density, with high values in shallow area and more dense stands. For the abiotic parameters, a positive correlation was observed between Shannon–Wiener diversity and the dissolved oxygen. The Leaf Area Index was also positively correlated with temperature and dissolved oxygen.

The grave of La Balance-Ilot P, in Avignon, southern France, is an individual and isolated burial, attributed in the 1970′s to the Mesolithic or the Early Neolithic. The grave, partially unearthed, was exhibited and stored at the Calvet Museum until its rediscovery and laboratory excavation in 2009. We used 3D laser recording and field anthropological methods, followed by a multidisciplinary approach. The deceased, an adult male, was buried in primary deposition without any architectural features preserved. For the first time in the Mediterranean early Neolithic, this study led to the identification of a garment adorned with sophisticated embroidery using 158 red-colored Columbella rustica shells and 16 red deer canines. Calibrated AMS dates allow us to reliably place it in the early 5th millennium b.c. reinforcing evidence for long distance intercultural relationships in Europe during the Neolithic.

Mollusc communities associated with the seagrass Posidonia oceanica were investigated in Cap Zebib (North-Eastern Tunisia). Samples were collected monthly from May 2007 to May 2008, in two stations located at 3 and 12 m depths using a corer of 25 cm diameter. A total of 753 individuals belonging to 47 species were identified. The species richness ( S ) and Shannon–Wiener diversity index ( H ′) showed significant variation in relation with depth and sampling period, with higher values at 3 m depth. The community structure at 3 m depth varied considerably from one month to another, while 12 m depth did not show any significant temporal variability. The results of similarity percentage (SIMPER) and Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA) showed that the species Clanculus cruciatus, Cantharus dorbignyi, Columbella rustica and Cardita calyculata contributed most to the distribution pattern of the mollusc community at 3 m depth. In contrast, at 12 m depth, the highest contributions were given by the species Jujubinus exasperatus , Smaragdia viridis and Tricolia pullus . Taking into consideration a possible relationship between the faunal composition and plant ( P. oceanica ) features, a negative correlation was found between the number of mollusc species, Shannon–Wiener diversity and water depth. In contrast, a positive correlation was noted between the number of species and meadow shoot density, with high values in shallow area and more dense stands. For the abiotic parameters, a positive correlation was observed between Shannon–Wiener diversity and the dissolved oxygen. The Leaf Area Index was also positively correlated with temperature and dissolved oxygen.

Asteroids are largely recognized as important predators in all of the world’s oceans and for this reason, they play a crucial role in shaping the structure and functioning of benthic ecosystems. The spiny starfish Marthasterias glacialis is generally considered a voracious predator of molluscs, in particular bivalves. Using field observations and carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) stable isotopes, we explored possible changes in diet in relation to size of M. glacialis. Data were collected at Ustica Island (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea) from June 2008 to June 2010. M. glacialis showed a size shift in feeding preferences due to different use of food items: bivalves, Columbella rustica, Euthria cornea and Trochoidea were strongly selected by small starfish whereas the larger ones preferred Arbacia lixula and Paracentrotus lividus. The clear picture that emerged is that large M. glacialis is able to control sea urchin populations and indirectly Mediterranean rocky reef ecosystems.

Islands are often considered natural laboratories and thus excellent models for test- ing theories on adaptive radiation. To date, most studies have focused on terrestrial ecosystems. In a comparative study between island populations and their mainland counterparts, Vermeij (2004, Frontiers of biogeography, p 239�254), using published data, argued that shallow-water marine shelled molluscs are better defended against predation along continents than on oceanic islands, possibly due to a lower predation pressure on islands. Here we evaluate this hypothesis, using shallow-water marine gastropods from the Azores and the Portuguese mainland as models (the island species Columbella adansoni and the mainland species C. rustica, and populations of Stra- monita haemastoma from both study areas). Pleistocene S. haemastoma fossils from the Azores were also analyzed. Specimens were measured for defense-related shell characteristics and com- pared (island vs. mainland populations) using principal component analysis and Mann-Whitney tests. The results revealed that Azorean C. adansoni possess significantly thicker and wider shells with a narrower aperture than mainland C. rustica, which present a lighter shell and a higher spire. Comparisons of island and mainland S. haemastoma indicate that the Azorean population is lighter, with a wider aperture, thicker lip, and lower spire. The comparison of Azorean S. haemas- toma fossils and extant specimens showed significantly narrower apertures and thicker lips in Pleistocene shells. Despite some evidence supporting the arguments used by Vermeij, our analy- sis failed to conclusively support this hypothesis as a whole.

In an attempt to understand the culture and social behaviour of Mesolithic populations findings of personal ornaments are of particular importance. Columbella rustica (dove shell) is small marine gastropod present throughout the Mediterranean in the infralittoral zone on the rocky surface just below sea level. Perforated Columbella rustica were regularly used as beads by hunter-gatherer from beginning of Upper Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic with the wide spatial distribution. This small marine gastropod is still in use as an ornament by some post hunter-gatherer economies. So far, on the Eastern Adriatic coast 988 personal ornaments from the 8 prehistoric sites (Abri Šebrn, Lim 001, Nugljanska cave, Pupićina cave, Vela spilja, Vlakno cave, Vela spila and Zala cave) with Mesolithic horizons have been discovered. On all these sites, except Zala cave, Columbella rustica is preferred type of raw material used for making beads (84, 72%), while other types of marine gastropods and bivalves, river gastropods and animal teeth are represented in smaller amounts. The biggest number of beads has been discovered in Vlakno cave (N=447), one of the richest prehistorical sites of personal ornaments on Eastern Adriatic coast, and most of these beads are made of Columbella rustica (78, 75%). There are numerous other marine gastropods and bivalves that can also be easily collected and perforated, but Mesolithic groups always selected same species. The selectivity in the raw materials choice can be interpreted in the context of a uniform non-verbal visual communication, and the existence and expression of not only local but also regional identity. The establishment of such visible “social links” called by Whallon “safety net”, is considered as an important part of the survival strategies of that time, especially in a period of major climatic oscillations that have caused major changes in the environment in relation to the availability of food sources.

The cosmopolitan digenean family Opecoelidae comprises several hundred species, whose adults live in the digestive tract of marine and freshwater fishes. The genus Opecoeloides Odhner, 1928 is represented in the Mediterranean by a single species, Opecoeloides furcatus (Bremser in Rudolphi, 1819), that has been recorded from six definitive hosts species. To see if this broad host range could be the result of an underestimation of species diversity, we obtained ITS1 ribosomal DNA sequences as well as morphological data from adult specimens of O. furcatus isolated from two definitive hosts species: Mullus surmuletus and Gaidropsarus mediterraneus. Sequence and morphological data were also obtained from several opecoelid cercariae and metacercariae occurring in different invertebrate hosts. The data presented here provide striking evidence that O. furcatus specimens isolated from the two host fishes represent distinct species. This argument is reinforced by the fact that cercariae corresponding to each of these adult species were found in two molluscan host-species, Columbella rustica and Mitrella scripta. These parasite species differ by several nucleotide substitutions and a 60 bp-long insertion in the ITS1. They also show clear morphological differences in testis and ovary shape, as well as in their mean dimensions. Here, we attribute the adult specimens found in G. mediterraneus to Opecoeloides columbellae (Pagenstecher, 1863) n. comb. This species was described and compared with O. furcatus from M. surmuletus. ITS1 sequence comparison allowed identification of the cercaria (occurring in C. rustica) and metacercaria (occurring in Hippolyte inermis) of O. columbellae n. comb.

Five neogastropod species collected from a tributyltin (TBT)-polluted site near the port of Fare within the Ria Formosa on the Algarve coast of Portugal were examined in April 1996 for 'imposex'. All females of four of these species - Hexaplex trunculus, Ocenebra erinacea, Ocinebrina aciculata (all Muricidae) and Nassarius reticulatus (Nassariidae) - exhibited the characteristic development of male sex organs (penis plus vas deferens) but no female of the fifth Columbella rustica (Columbellidae) - showed any sign of being similarly masculinised. Only two neogastropods have been previously described as lacking the imposer response to TBT exposure. These two species, along with C. rustica, can be considered as 'zero-response' forms. Other species can be grouped according to the maximum level of masculinisation they exhibit: level I species develop just a penis and vas deferens; in level II forms oviduct structure and function are disrupted, and in level III species ovary transformation to testis is observed. Such a comparative scheme of ordering can be used as a guide to the differential sensitivity of species to TBT pollution. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Školjke i puževi pronađeni na arheološkim nalazištima mogu biti dobar pokazatelj raspona kretanja paleolitičkih i mezolitičkih lovaca i sakupljača i/ili sustava razmjene između različitih zajednica na većem prosotoru. U pećini Zali u kasnogornjopaleolitičkim i mezolitičkim slojevima otkriveni su probušeni morski puževi i ulomak morske školjke koji svjedoče o vrlo ranim kontaktima između unutrašnjosti i jadranske obale. U kasnom gornjem paleolitiku kontakti su dokazani prisutnošću probušenih morskih puževa Cyclope neritea i fragmentom školjke Pecten jacobaeus, dok kontakte s jadranskom obalom u mezolitiku dokazuju probušeni morski puževi Columbella rustica i Cyclope neritea. Bez obzira jesu li neke od tih nalaza s jadranske obale donijeli stanovnici Zale ili su do njih došli razmjenom s nekom od jadranskih skupina lovaca i sakupljača, na samoj obali ili u unutrašnjosti, to su najraniji dokazi izravnog kontakta jadranskog i kontinentalnog dijela Hrvatske.

Školjke i puževi pronađeni na arheološkim nalazištima mogu biti dobar pokazatelj raspona kretanja paleolitičkih i mezolitičkih lovaca i sakupljača i/ili sustava razmjene između različitih zajednica na većem prosotoru. U pećini Zali u paleolitičkim i mezolitičkim slojevima otkriveni su probušeni morski puževi i ulomak morske školjke koji svjedoče o vrlo ranim kontaktima između unutrašnjosti i jadranske obale. U kasnom gornjem paleolitiku kontakti su dokazani prisutnošću probušenih morskih puževa Cyclope neritea (neritoidna vrša) i fragmentom školjke Pecten jacobaeus (jakovska kapica), dok kontakte s jadranskom obalom u mezolitiku dokazuju probušeni morski puževi Columbella rustica (kokica). Bez obzira jesu li neke od tih nalaza s jadranske obali donijeli stanovnici Zale ili su do njih došli razmjenom s nekom od jadranskih skupina lovaca, na samoj obali ili u unutrašnjosti, to su najraniji dokazi izravnog kontakta jadranskog i kontinentalnog dijela Hrvatske.

Perforated shells figure prominently in discussions of exchange systems and body ornamentation during the Mesolithic in Europe. This paper discusses assemblages of perforated marine (Columbella rustica) and freshwater (Lithoglyphus naticoides) snail shells recovered from recent excavations of Mesolithic sites in Croatia. Numerous finds occur in several sites in Istria on the Adriatic coast and at Zala cave in the inland region of Lika, suggesting the possible existence of an exchange or trading system. Several other Mesolithic sites with perforated marine and freshwater snail shells are omitted from this discussion because these sites are located on the Adriatic coast, therefore suggesting local production of perforated snail shells. The probable existence of a Mesolithic regional exchange system between coastal and inland areas is supported by the presence of exotic shells, both on the coast and inland. Comparison of metric attributes (shell size and size of perforation) and the morphology of perforations in each group suggest similar treatment of snail shells found in Istria and in Lika. Mesolithic specimens were compared only with modern examples of C. rustica because modern populations of L. naticoides have not yet been found. This comparison suggests either strong selectivity during the Mesolithic in favour of larger specimens, or changed environmental circumstances. Future research should explore if Lithoglyphus naticoides, found in Mesolithic, still exists today.

The Vlakno cave is situated in the central part of the island of Dugi Otok between settlements Luka and Savar. The cave was suitable for dwelling of a smaller group throughout the year due to its look, size and orientation. The third campaign of the archaeological research was undertaken at the beginning of 2010 with the aim of determining complete startigraphy of the site so that the excavation was conducted within previously opened Trench B (fig. 1). In the previous campaigns the level of tephra, Neapolitan Yellow Tuff was reached. Analyses indicate that this layer was formed 14 500 years ago. In the new campaign additional 80 cm of deposits under tephra have been excavated, and the bottom of the cave was not reached until the end of the campaign. Under the tephra there are three main layers separated with two thin interlayers of ash and burnt soil which actually represent walking surfaces from the period when the cave was in use. Preliminary analyses of the material from all three layers indicate to the Epigravettian period corresponding with the general development of the Upper Palaeolithic on both sides of the Adriatic. Dates acquired for layers under tephra indicate age from 12. 710 to 12. 120 cal. years BC (14. 660 to 14. 060 cal. years BP). At the beginning of the new excavation decrease of the remains of marine organisms was evident, and the remains of big terrestrial animals refer mostly to big ruminants. There are less flint tools, although they are still represented with a significant number of specimens. There are also bone tools, such as perforated teeth of a deer (Cervus elaphus), perforated shells and snails (Cyclope neritea, Columbella rustica and shells of the genus Glycimeris). Eight perforated deers' teeth were found, six different perforated shells and a bead made of a shell of the genus Entalina (Dentalium tetragonum) (fig. 2). Alongside these finds, we need to mention fragments of ten bone awls and punches. Besides jewelry, meaning of the aesthetics gains even more importance regarding the find of two fragments of chert nodules in the same layer. One of them is decorated with a row of short, parallel and two horizontal incisions on the cortex (fig. 5). This was a segment of a larger depiction, continuing in three directions in relation to the extant segment. Unfortunately other fragments are missing which is why it is impossible to discuss the type of depiction. Nodule is broken, only its segment is preserved. It is triangular in cross-section, 3,6 cm long. Preliminary analyses indicate that it was exposed to heating before it was broken. Another fragment of a nodule was found in the same layer, semicircular in cross-section. Incisions in the cortex are shallow, filling the entire surface as opposed to the previously mentioned fragment. This is a row of slanted parallel short incisions encircling the flake (fig. 6). Meaning of these objects remains unknown until the time of possible discovery of some other fragment. There are no indications of functional characteristics of these incisions which is why it is reasonable to suppose that their purpose was of aesthetic nature to say the least. It is possible that depictions on the stone from Vlakno have far more complex meaning. Archaeologists assume that some of the art of the Upper Palaeolithic was used for information storage. Geometric forms might represent different marks or symbols, messages illegible to a modern man. These are not the only decorated objects from Vlakno. On a bone awl is a row of horizontal, short incisions on the proximal part which were not created as a result of working or using bone (cutmarks) but they undoubtedly represent a decoration of the object. Similar incisions (four short incisions) were found on the distal part of the bone punch. These incisions can only have aesthetic meaning as well as on the previously mentioned example. However they may be a sign of ownership or affiliation to a group, or, since the incisions repeat, they may represent a system of numbers.