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The adoption of compensatory movement patterns occurs when limitations in mobility, stability, or motor control prevent proper motion from occurring. These dysfunctional movements may inhibit fundamental motor skill development and negatively influence perceived movement competence, impeding the development of physical literacy. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between functional movement and perceived and actual motor skill competence in young adolescents. Functional movement proficiency was determined using the Functional Movement Screen (FMS™), which provides three variables of interest: (a) FMS™ total score, (b) number of asymmetries, and (c) number of movement pattern dysfunctions. Perceived physical competence was assessed through the Children and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile. Finally, the Get Skilled: Get Active process-oriented motor skill assessment was used to evaluate vertical jump, kick, run, and overhand throw proficiency. A significant positive correlation between FMS™ total score and vertical jump performance was found. A positive relationship was also found between the number of asymmetries and overhand throw performance. The Children and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile constructs of body attractiveness and physical condition were positively associated with FMS™ total score, and physical condition was also shown to be inversely related to the number of movement pattern dysfunctions. Results suggest that functional movement may underpin movement competence and confidence.

This study explored the influence of instructions that combine internal and external foci. Fifty-one subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups: internal only, external only, and a combined internal and external focus. The task was the overhand lacrosse throw for accuracy from a stationary position to a target located on a wall 6 m away. Following a 10-trial pretest, instructions were provided according to attentional focus group assignment and participants performed 8 blocks of 10 practice throws. Following a 2-day period of no practice, retention and transfer tests were performed. A significant Group × Block interaction was found, F (14, 336) = .57, indicating that the external focus group was more accurate than the combined focus group on the first and second practice blocks. This external focus benefit diminished in later trials and no significant differences for group were found for retention or transfer. Participants performed significantly better on the retention test than on the pretest. Subjects were also asked to estimate what percentage of the practice trials they actually focused on the instructions provided. Responses ranged from 10% to 95% (M = 64%), raising questions regarding how learners use instructional information.

This study examined the degree to which cueing strategies were attended when participants viewed a video model using eye tracking technology. It also examined whether visual cues highlighting body movement versus the intended effect of the movement would be attended to equally. Participants (N = 55) were randomly assigned to one of five experimental groups according to the nature of the cueing strategy provided: (a) No cue (Control), (b) Visual cue focused on the arm (Internal), (c) Visual cue focused on the racket (External), (d) Arm visual cue plus verbal directive (internal + VC), and (e) Racket visual cue plus verbal directive (external + VC). Under the impression that their technique would be later assessed, all groups viewed a video model of a tennis forehand groundstroke four times while eye movements were recorded. Mean percentage time that gaze was fixated on the assigned visual cue was determined. All groups with the exception of the external + VC condition attended to the arm LookZone (LZ) significantly more than the racket LZ. Both internal groups also viewed their assigned cue a greater percentage of time than their corresponding external groups did but not more than the control condition did. These data suggest that observers of a model have a tendency to focus their visual attention on the final body segment that carries out the desired action regardless of cueing.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine whether functional movement proficiency could be improved as measured via the Functional Movement Screen using a standardized warm-up protocol in middle school physical education. A secondary purpose was to determine whether such improvement, if it occurred, would positively influence the technical performance of 4 fundamental motor skills: overhand throw, vertical jump, kicking, and running. Method: Participants were 120 7th- and 8th-grade physical education student volunteers. Two classes from each grade level were assigned to the functional group (N = 54) while the remaining 2 classes of each grade were assigned to the control group (N = 66). Baseline measures were obtained using the Functional Movement Screen and the Get Skilled: Get Active (2000) process-oriented motor skill assessment. For 6 weeks, the functional group warmed up by performing functional stretching, stability, and mobility exercises while the control group completed a traditional dynamic warm-up. Results: According to gain score analysis, those in the functional group significantly reduced dysfunctional movements (scores of 1) compared with those in the control group. Further, boys in the functional group significantly improved their Functional Movement Screen composite score as compared with their male counterparts in the control group whose scores declined. No differences were found for fundamental motor skill performance. Conclusion: Replacing the traditional dynamic warm-up with one that emphasizes functional movement in preparation for activity in physical education appears effective for correcting movement dysfunctions in young adolescents.

We explore the problem of variability of practice from an applied perspective. Different types of variability, i.e., numerosity, heterogeneity, situational diversity, and scheduling are presented from the motor learning perspective, including theories, models, and concepts. We present the implications of applying variability into practice, the advantages, and problems arising while varying the practice. Finally, we propose a pragmatic model of applying variability in motor practice to assist coaches in designing effective training programs. Answers to three simple questions guide coaches to different methods of introducing variability in the practice. We present also key principles, coaches have to follow, in order to apply variability appropriately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of skillful movers is arguably one of the most important goals of physical education. According to the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2004), skill proficiency and confidence are paramount to developing a lifelong commitment to being physically active. Yet these attributes are highly dependent on practitioners' analytical and interpretive judgments of observed performance as well as their prescription of appropriate intervention strategies for skill improvement. Alarmingly, research has repeatedly shown both pre- and in-service physical education teachers lack competency in movement analysis (e.g., Behets, 1996; Hoffman & Sembiante, 1975; Imwold & Hoffman, 1983). Consequently, traditional single subdisciplinary instruction in skill analysis and intervention in physical education teacher training programs is not working. Given the relationship between perceived competence and lifelong engagement in physical activity, the contention of this paper is that physical education teacher training programs must better prepare candidates in skill analysis. Toward that end, the efficacy and implementation of an integrated model is advocated. (Contains 3 figures.)

Given the known relationship between physical inactivity and chronic disease (US Dept. of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000, 2001), learning more about antecedents for physical activity engagement is an important research priority. In this vein, a number of studies have found a relationship between perceived and actual motor skill competency and physical activity engagement (Burton & Martens, 1986; Carroll & Loumidis, 2001; Feltz & Petlichkoff, 1983; Roberts, Kleiber, & Duda, 1981). These findings call for the need to revisit the priority placed on motor skill acquisition in K-12 physical education curriculum and the prerequisite instructional practice of skill analysis. The purpose of this article is to generate renewed commitment toward developing skill-analysis competency in physical education teachers.

The discourse contained in this article is the result of an on-going discussion about "providing variability of practice" between professionals from different areas of study within kinesiology. The impetus for this discussion arose from a lack of common terminology, differing views, and the sometimes contrasting research and professional practices promoted in the areas of pedagogy and motor learning. Since many undergraduate and graduate level students enroll in courses in both motor learning and pedagogy, it is imperative that professionals seek a common ground that leads to an understanding of the areas where the two perspectives converge or differ. A question and answer format, from the viewpoints of pedagogy and motor learning, was used to guide the discussion related to variability of practice and its research and practical applications in the teaching and learning process of motor skills.

One hindrance to maximizing the amount of time students are actively engaged in quality practice is the wait time that results from limited equipment (e.g. basketball goals) and/or facilities (e.g. shot put ring). A possible solution to counteract this problem would be to modify the natural performance setting. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of this approach on skill acquisition however has been lacking. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to investigate the differences of two practice schedules (natural vs. modified) on the acquisition of the soccer throw-in for distance. A modified schedule, where participants practiced 50% of the time in a natural performance setting and 50% of the time in a modified setting was equally effective to practicing in a natural performance setting 100% of the time for skill acquisition. (Contains 3 tables.)

Examined the learning styles of undergraduate athletic trainers to determine their consistency in traditional classroom versus clinical settings. Students completed the Learning Styles Inventory twice, once focusing on learning new information in the classroom and once focusing on learning in the clinical setting. Learning styles shifted depending on the domain through which the student was learning. (SM)

Providing students and athletes with information regarding the correctness of their performance and prescribing modifications for improvement are paramount for skill acquisition and performance enhancement. In this article, the author stresses the importance of knowing when to correct an error and when to avoid intervening. A key factor in determining when to intervene is the nature of the required correction. While correcting faulty mechanics to enhance performance is a key component of physical education and coaching, there are occasions when making such changes will adversely influence performance. By understanding the nature of the corrections that are needed, teachers and coaches can design more effective practices and coaches can make better-informed decisions about when it is wise to make a correction and when it is best to avoid intervening. (Contains 1 table.)

Proponents of chain training suggest that using chains hung from the ends of barbells rather than using conventional barbells alone enhances strength, power, and neuromuscular adaptations. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a conventional barbell with chains compared to a conventional barbell without chains would affect the performance of an Olympic Clean. The subjects were also asked regarding their perception of how chains affected their lifting. Four male and 3 female competitive weightlifters who used chains as part of their training participated in the study. The testing protocol compared the subjects' lifting 80% and 85% of their 1 repetition maximum (1RM) using conventional barbells and their lifting 80% and 85% of their 1 RM using chains (75% conventional barbells + 5% chains and 80% conventional barbells + 5% chains, respectively). Video analysis evaluated the bar's vertical displacement and velocity and the rate of force production. Vertical ground reaction forces for the first-pull, unweighting, and second-pull phases of the lift were evaluated by using a force plate. After testing, the subjects completed a 2-item questionnaire asking individual perception of the effects of the chains. The results showed no significant difference for condition for any of the variables examined. In contrast, all subjects perceived that the chains required a greater effort. In conclusion, the results indicated that the addition of chains provided no greater value over lifting conventional barbells alone in the performance of the Olympic Clean, although the subjects perceived the chains to have a positive effect. KEY WORDS chain training, weightlifting, uncommon implements

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the addition of chains to a barbell during the performance of the snatch would invoke differences in execution compared with lifting a conventional barbell without chains. Additionally, subjects were asked whether they perceived that the addition of chains had effects on their performance, and, if so, what those effects were. Four male and 3 female competitive weightlifters who regularly used chains as part of their training programs participated in the study. They were compared lifting 80% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) using conventional barbells with 80% of 1RM, 5% of which was accounted for by chains. The same procedure was used with 85% of 1RM. Variables examined included maximum vertical displacement of the bar, maximum bar velocity, rate of force production of the bar, and vertical ground reaction forces for the first pull, unweighting, and second pull phases of the lift. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the chain vs. no-chain conditions at either 80% or 85% of 1RM. In contrast, 100% of the subjects stated that they perceived that the addition of chains made them work harder during the snatch. They suggested that the chains forced them to pull harder throughout the lift and that oscillation of the chains required their shoulders, abdominals, and back to work harder to stabilize the bar in the catch phase. Although statistical results indicate that chains have no influence on the snatch technique, chains may have a psychological impact and possibly invoke a physiological training response by increasing strength of muscles required to stabilize the bar during the catch phase if used over time. KEY WORDS. chain training, Olympic lifting, variable resistance, uncommon implements

This study examined the influence of two stimulus-presentation methods on coincident timing performance. 50 participants performed a button press and striking task in coincidence with a target stimulus. Participants were randomly divided into either the Terminating Group, whose target light was the last in the series, or the Apparent Motion Group, whose target was not the final light in the series and allowed the apparent motion of the stimulus to continue. 20 trials at each of three velocities, 4, 8, and 12 mph, were randomly performed for each task. The analysis yielded no significant differences between groups, indicating that coincident timing performance was not dependent on the method of stimulus presentation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the coincident timing accuracy of the preferred and nonpreferred limbs in a ballistic striking task. A secondary purpose was to examine subjects' perception of their performance proficiency with each limb. 30 right-hand preferred subjects performed a 60-cm horizontal arm motion to displace a wooden harrier in coincidence with the final light in a series that traveled down a runway. Interestingly, while both the preferred and nonpreferred limbs were equally proficient in temporal accuracy, 80% of subjects perceived a bilateral asymmetry in performance. The influence of this perception on bilateral skill performance and acquisition remains in question.

9 starters and 8 nonstarters of a university women's softball team completed the Profile of Mood States prior to playing the team perceived to be the most and least difficult to defeat in their conference. A significant interaction indicated that nonstarters displayed higher fatigue prior to playing the opponent perceived as most difficult to defeat. In addition, significant mean differences were found between starters and nonstarters on constructs of Anger, Confusion, Tension, and Depression, suggesting that nonstarters may not share same psychological profile as their peers who start.