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Objective To institutionalize an evidence-based policy/protocol adapted from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) national medication standards for managing telephone medication orders (TMO) and to determine the impact of the policy/protocol on the number of telephone medication errors (TME) on two medical units of a small private hospital in Jamaica. Methods Kotter's Eight-step Change Model was used to facilitate organizational change among nurses and physicians by teaching and implementing the TMO policy/protocol adapted from AHRQ standards and collecting pre-policy and post-policy frequency of TMEs. A convenience sample of 80 nurses and physicians participated in training about the policy/protocol, took post-instructional tests and participated in the implementation of the policy/protocol. Chart audits over six weeks monitored adherence to the policy/protocol. The annual monthly mean of TMEs for the prior year was compared with the number of TMEs just prior to implementation of policy/protocol and at the end of the first six weeks of implementation. Results One hundred per cent of the convenience sample of 80 nurses and doctors passed the post-instructional test; the workforce adhered fully to the protocol during six weeks of implementation, and there was a 100% reduction in TMEs between the prior year and six weeks after policy/protocol implementation. Conclusions Kotter's eight-step framework of organizational change was a successful strategy in institutionalizing and sustaining adherence to the TMO policy/protocol, reducing the number of TMEs and positively influencing the organizational culture.

The author narrates his trips, between 1951 and 2006, to the main historical sites of antique medicine, where physicians of pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico and Peru, Egypt, Greco Latin culture and Islamic civilizations, lived. The trip ends with a visit to medieval European medicine before Renaissance. A description of the main historical sites and the features of these medical and sanitary cultures is made. In antique civilizations, diseases were considered a punishment of pagan deities. Supernatural and magical influences were decisive in medical practice. The Greco Latin culture of Galen and Hippocrates freed manhood from these causes of diseases and gave a rational basis to the practice of medicine. The Islamic civilization allowed the transmission of Greco Latin culture to medieval Europe. This permitted the renaissance of European creativity and the foundation of modern scientific medicine in the sixteenth century. The author highlights the main virtues of classical Greco Latin medicine, that are the foundations of humanistic thoughts that will restrin the technological revolution of modern medicine.

The author narrates his trips, between 1951 and 2006, to the main historical sites of antique medicine, where physicians of pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico and Peru, Egypt, Greco Latin culture and Islamic civilizations, lived. The trip ends with a visit to medieval European medicine before Renaissance. A description of the main historical sites and the features of these medical and sanitary cultures is made. In antique civilizations, diseases were considered a punishment of pagan deities. Supernatural and magical influences were decisive in medical practice. The Greco Latin culture of Galen and Hippocrates freed manhood from these causes of diseases and gave a rational basis to the practice of medicine. The Islamic civilization allowed the transmission of Greco Latin culture to medieval Europe. This permitted the renaissance of European creativity and the foundation of modern scientific medicine in the sixteenth century. The author highlights the main virtues of classical Greco Latin medicine, that are the foundations of humanistic thoughts that will restrin the technological revolution of modern medicine (RevMéd Chile 2007; 135:1076-81)

The author narrates his trips, between 1951 and 2006, to the main historical sites of antique medicine, where physicians of pre-Columbian cultures of Mexico and Peru, Egypt, Greco Latin culture and Islamic civilizations, lived. The trip ends with a visit to medieval European medicine before Renaissance. A description of the main historical sites and the features of these medical and sanitary cultures is made. In antique civilizations, diseases were considered a punishment of pagan deities. Supernatural and magical influences were decisive in medical practice. The Greco Latin culture of Galen and Hippocrates freed manhood from these causes of diseases and gave a rational basis to the practice of medicine. The Islamic civilization allowed the transmission of Greco Latin culture to medieval Europe. This permitted the renaissance of European creativity and the foundation of modern scientific medicine in the sixteenth century. The author highlights the main virtues of classical Greco Latin medicine, that are the foundations of humanistic thoughts that will restrin the technological revolution of modern medicine (RevMéd Chile 2007; 135:1076-81)

In 1981, a supreme decree allowed the creation of private universities in Chile. As a consequence, 50 new universities were created in one decade, under the surveillance of the Council for Superior Education. This paper analyzes the evolution of this expansion process, that resulted in an admission of 370,000 students to 60 universities along the country, during 2004. At the moment, 42% of the universities, designed as traditional, receive state financing and 58% are private. Twenty six percent are owned by the state, 52% are secular and 22% are confessional. The 25 traditional universities are complex organizations of a high academic level. New private universities are only devoted to teaching and some have obtained their autonomy. Some have improved the quality of their academic staff, perform research and impart doctorate degrees. However, most are small and with a limited academic staff. Traditional universities are stratified in a superior level. Eight private universities and some regional institutions, that are becoming complex and performing research activities, are stratified in a middle level. Two thirds of the private universities are in the lower level. The expansion of superior education is a sign of the social and cultural progress that Chile has experienced (Rev Méd Chile 2004; 132: 1543-9)

In 1981, a supreme decree allowed the creation of private universities in Chile. As a consequence, 50 new universities were created in one decade, under the surveillance of the Council for Superior Education. This paper analyzes the evolution of this expansion process, that resulted in an admission of 370,000 students to 60 universities along the country, during 2004. At the moment, 42% of the universities, designed as traditional, receive state financing and 58% are private. Twenty six percent are owned by the state, 52% are secular and 22% are confessional. The 25 traditional universities are complex organizations of a high academic level. New private universities are only devoted to teaching and some have obtained their autonomy. Some have improved the quality of their academic staff, perform research and impart doctorate degrees. However, most are small and with a limited academic staff. Traditional universities are stratified in a superior level. Eight private universities and some regional institutions, that are becoming complex and performing research activities, are stratified in a middle level. Two thirds of the private universities are in the lower level. The expansion of superior education is a sign of the social and cultural progress that Chile has experienced (Rev Méd Chile 2004; 132: 1543-9)

Thirty years have elapsed since the tragic death of Salvador Allende, MD. He occupies a high position as a symbol of the fall of real socialism. He became the most famous physician/politician of his times in Chile and the tracks of his life became imprinted, during the past century, in the pages of Revista Médica de Chile. This is a proper time to reconstruct his historical memory from a more reflexive perspective (Rev Méd Chile 2003; 131: 809-14)

The classical Mendelian genetics forged the development of biomedical sciences in the twentieth century. However, the classical works that allowed the sequencing of human genoma, have not received the recognition that they deserve. The author does a historical revision of works, considered classic in genetics and its specialties such as cytogenetics, biochemical genetics, immunogenetics and molecular genetics, published between 1990 and 1999. Authors that received the Nobel Prize are identified and the works are sorted in chronological order. Most founders of genetics specialties, have not received the Nobel Prize. Only 26 of 80 classical works have been awarded with such distinction. Almost all founders of Mendelian genetics and human cytogenetics, have been unrewarded. The author proposes to create the "Johan Gregory Mendel Prize" for geneticists (Rev Méd Chile 2003; 131: 220-4)

The discovery of the complete base sequence of human genome unveils several perspectives to understand human diseases and develop new therapies. Human genome contains approximately 39,000 genes of which 26,000 code specific proteins that have been identified. There are approximately 1,500 diseases with identified molecular disturbances. Genes can modify signs and symptoms of common diseases. Thus, there are no pure monogenic diseases. Chronic diseases of adults are complex and dependent on multiple factors. Several genes that predispose to chronic degenerative diseases have been identified. This is revealing the complex nature and the interaction of these ailments with the environment. The discovery of bacterial and viral genomic sequences will allow the manufacturing of new vaccines and specific molecular antimicrobials. The new pharmacogenomics will devise treatments for each subject according to her specific genomic profile. The new applications of genomic technology is creating new paradigms in biomedical research such as functional genomics, proteonomics, epigenetic regulation. Gene diagnosis and therapy will considerably improve the future of medicine (Rev Méd Chile 2001; 129: 1329-33

Background: Eduardo Cruz Coke M.D., (1899-1974) was one of the precursors and pioneers of biomedical research in Chile, as professor of Physiological and Pathological Chemistry at the University of Chile, from 1925 to 1962. He was a disciple of Dr. Juan Noe and studied in Europe with the Nobel Prize winners Otto Warburg, Jean Perrin, Louis de Broglie and Frederic G. Hopkins. In Chile, he founded a scientific academy with disciples that later obtained the National Sciences Award, such as Hector Croxatto, Jorge Mardones, Hermann Niemeyer, Luis Vargas and Jorge Allende. He carried out pioneering research in metabolism, nutrition, endocrinology, oncology and nephrogenic hypertension. He published more than 50 scientific papers in French, English and Spanish. He founded scientific societies, edited journals and created the National Commission of Nuclear Energy. His books were "The ionic acidity in the clinic", "Preventive and directed medicine", "The adrenal cortex". He was Ministry of Health between 1937 and 1938 and passed important socio-medical bills. He obtained the distinguished international awards in Europe, the U.S.A. and Latin America. The Biomedical Sciences Institute of the University of Chile carries his name. (Rev Med Chile 2001; 129: 447-455)

Background: Eduardo Cruz Coke M.D., (1899-1974) was one of the precursors and pioneers of biomedical research in Chile, as professor of Physiological and Pathological Chemistry at the University of Chile, from 1925 to 1962. He was a disciple of Dr. Juan Noe and studied in Europe with the Nobel Prize winners Otto Warburg, Jean Perrin, Louis de Broglie and Frederic G. Hopkins. In Chile, he founded a scientific academy with disciples that later obtained the National Sciences Award, such as Hector Croxatto, Jorge Mardones, Hermann Niemeyer, Luis Vargas and Jorge Allende. He carried out pioneering research in metabolism, nutrition, endocrinology, oncology and nephrogenic hypertension. He published more than 50 scientific papers in French, English and Spanish. He founded scientific societies, edited journals and created the National Commission of Nuclear Energy. His books were "The ionic acidity in the clinic", "Preventive and directed medicine", "The adrenal cortex". He was Ministry of Health between 1937 and 1938 and passed important socio-medical bills. He obtained the distinguished international awards in Europe, the U.S.A. and Latin America. The Biomedical Sciences Institute of the University of Chile carries his name. (Rev Méd Chile 2001; 129: 447-455)

The author, member of the UNESCO Bioethics Committee, participated in the preparation of the Universal Declaration about Human Genoma and Human Rights, in 1997. The aim of this work is to analyze the initial articles of such Declaration, defining the bioethical principles that defend human dignity, freedom and rights, against the madness of the present biotechnological revolution. The development of genetics for the benefit of mankind will be guaranteed if these principles are honored. Genetic discrimination, reductionism and determinism, are identified by the author as perversions that, if used by biotechnologists, can lead to the rebirth of eugenism and racism, that were condemned by the Code of Nuremberg, in 1947. Investigators must assume their responsibility, respecting the principles of human dignity, the real freedom of research and solidarity among people. This attitude will avoid the use of genetics for purposes other than the welfare of mankind. (Rev Méd Chile 2000; 128: 679-82).

The aim of this historical review is to evaluate the evolution of genetics in the context of Latin American scientific culture, to value foreign influences and to highlight the discoveries and contributions of Latin American geneticists. During the first third of the twentieth century, local naturalists, botanists and physicians understood the chromosomal theory of heredity and Mendelian theory of evolution and begun research and teaching on these new theories and technologies. During the thirties and forties, North American geneticists visited South America and formed development poles on cytogenetics and population genetics in Brazil and Argentina. During the fifties and sixties, human genetics was formally established in Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Genetics teaching became generalized in universities and national Genetics Societies were formed. In 1969, the Latin American Genetics Society was created, unifying the efforts of zoologists, botanists, physicians and anthropologists in an unique Latin American cultural space, organizing 11 meetings between 1972 and 1994. Latin Americans have made a great contribution in genome discovery of animal, vegetable and human species in their territory. They explored the great genetic diversity of the continent, discovering new genes and diseases. The biomedical area had the greatest development. In 1997, there were 130 medical genetics centers, 120 hospitals specialized in congenital malformations, 56 molecular biology centers and 26 molecular genetics centers. At the end of the twentieth century, human genetics is completely integrated to medical sciences in Latin America.

The aim of this historical review is to evaluate the evolution of genetics in the context of Latin American scientific culture, to value foreign influences and to highlight the discoveries and contributions of Latin American geneticists. During the first third of the twentieth century, local naturalists, botanists and physicians understood the chromosomal theory of heredity and Mendelian theory of evolution and begun research and teaching on these new theories and technologies. During the thirties and forties, North American geneticists visited South America and formed development poles on cytogenetics and population genetics in Brazil and Argentina. During the fifties and sixties, human genetics was formally established in Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Genetics teaching became generalized in universities and national Genetics Societies were formed. In 1969, the Latin American Genetics Society was created, unifying the efforts of zoologists, botanists, physicians and anthropologists in an unique Latin American cultural space, organizing 11 meetings between 1972 and 1994. Latin Americans have made a great contribution in genome discovery of animal, vegetable and human species in their territory. They explored the great genetic diversity of the continent, discovering new genes and diseases. The biomedical area had the greatest development. In 1997, there were 130 medical genetics centers, 120 hospitals specialized in congenital malformations, 56 molecular biology centers and 26 molecular genetics centers. At the end of the twentieth century, human genetics is completely integrated to medical sciences in Latin America.