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Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture can impair balance performance, particularly during cognitive motor dual-tasks, This study aimed to determine the effects of various modalities of cognitive load (working memory, and visuospatial and executive function) on postural control parameters in individuals with ACL injury. Twenty-seven ACL-injured and 27 healthy participants were evaluated doing different cognitive tasks (silent backward counting. Benton's judgment of line orientation. and Stroop color-word test) while standing on a rigid surface or a foam. Each task was repeated three times and then averaged. Center of pressure variables used to measure postural performance included sway area and sway velocity in anterior-posterior and medial-lateral directions, Cognitive performance was also assessed by calculating errors and the score of cognitive tasks. A mixed model analysis of variance for center of pressure parameters indicated that patients had more sways than the healthy group. The interaction of group by postural difficulty by cognitive tasks was statistically significant for cognitive errors (p < .01), and patients with ACL injury indicated more cognitive errors compared to healthy controls while standing on the foam. The main effect of cognitive task was statistically significant for all postural parameters, representing reduced postural sways in both groups with all cognitive tasks. However, ACL-injured patients showed more cognitive errors in difficult postural conditions, suggesting that individuals with ACL injury may prioritize postural control over cognitive task accuracy and adopt the posture-first strategy to maintain balance under dual-task conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Cognitive load theory focuses on providing appropriate cognitive engagement to facilitate knowledge learning. The purpose of this study was to determine the contributions of cognitive load on high school students' in-class physical activity. Method: A stratified random sample of high school students (N = 150) who participated in a large curriculum intervention study provided the data. A path analysis and Hayes' PROCESS analysis were used to test a correlation model and moderation effect from gender and race. Results: The results showed that the reasoning learning tasks directly contributed to their in-class physical activity (path coefficient =.54, p <.01) and the gender and race factors were not significant moderators (p >.05). Conclusion: The findings imply that high cognitive load tasks can facilitate in-class physical activity. The findings suggest the power of the concept-based physical education curriculum in providing productive learning opportunities to all students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis study investigated Nonword Repetition (NWR) tasks in individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) compared to healthy controls (HC), focusing on phonological working memory (WMP). Significant differences were found in NWR acurracy (NWRacc) score between MS subgroups and HC (H = 48.2, p < 0.001). NWRacc decreased as the number of syllables increased in both groups, indicating increased cognitive load. All MS subtypes showed lower NWRacc compared to HC across varying syllable lengths (Mann Whitney U Test: two syllables U = 64.5, p < 0.001; three syllables U = 183, p < 0.001; four syllables U = 248, p < 0.001; five syllables U = 283.5, p < 0.001). However, no significant differences were found within MS subtypes based on syllable length. NWRacc did not differ between mild and severe MS groups. Overall, the NWR test effectively assessed WMP in MS, highlighting its utility in diagnosing and addressing language-cognitive challenges in individuals with MS. This underscores the importance of tailored intervention strategies to mitigate these challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractMid-air gesture interactions have emerged as one of the predominant modalities used in human-computer interaction (HCI). However, extant research on gestures predominantly concentrates on the design of gestures for singular functionalities, which requires a comprehensive investigation into gesture interaction design from an integrative HCI system perspective. Working memory capacity plays a pivotal role in constraining the number of gestures accommodated within an HCI system. This study adopts the change detection paradigm to conduct an empirical investigation into the working memory capacities associated with mid-air gestures, aiming to elucidate the working memory capacity for such gestures. The experimental design included two independent variables: five distinct categories of mid-air gestures (physical, symbolic, metaphorical, abstract, and mixed) and memory set sizes ranging from two to nine items. The findings revealed that working memory capacities for different types of gestures fluctuate between three and five items, with symbolic gestures presenting the most negligible cognitive load for recall and abstract gestures proving to be the most challenging. The outcomes of this research have significant implications for both the design of individual gestures and the overarching design of gesture interaction systems, serving as a valuable reference for future endeavors in HCI design optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every day, millions of viewers worldwide engage with subtitled content, and an increasing number choose to watch without sound. In this mixed-methods study, we examine the impact of sound presence or absence on the viewing experience of both first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) viewers when they watch subtitled videos. We explore this novel phenomenon through comprehension and recall post-tests, self-reported cognitive load, immersion, and enjoyment measures, as well as gaze pattern analysis using eye tracking. We also investigate viewers' motivations for opting for audiovisual content without sound and explore how the absence of sound impacts their viewing experience, using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. Our goal is to ascertain whether these effects are consistent among L2 and L1 speakers from different language varieties. To achieve this, we tested L1-British English, L1-Australian English and L2-English (L1-Polish) language speakers (n = 168) while they watched English-language audiovisual material with English subtitles with and without sound. The findings show that when watching videos without sound, viewers experienced increased cognitive load, along with reduced comprehension, immersion and overall enjoyment. Examination of participants' gaze revealed that the absence of sound significantly affected the viewing experience, increasing the need for subtitles and thus increasing the viewers' propensity to process them more thoroughly. The absence of sound emerged as a global constraint that made reading more effortful. Triangulating data from multiple sources made it possible to tap into some of the metacognitive strategies employed by viewers to maintain comprehension in the absence of sound. We discuss the implications within the context of the growing trend of watching subtitled videos without sound, emphasising its potential impact on cognitive processes and the viewing experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Although the presence of early helping behavior has been firmly established, it is unclear to what extent children are willing to adopt costs to help others, as well as how this willingness changes as children get older. Canadian 21‐ to 36‐month‐olds (N = 48) participated in four helping tasks varying in the type and degree of effort required to help (lifting force, cognitive load, the number of steps in a task, and pushing force). When costs were lower, toddlers were not only more likely to help but also provided help more readily and helped in ways that prioritized others’ needs. Importantly, we found that age and how costly helping was to individual children each uniquely predicted high‐cost helping, but not low‐cost helping. Overall, we demonstrate that toddlers’ helping is sensitive to a variety of effortful costs, while simultaneously demonstrating that maturation and individual costs appear to uniquely influence high‐cost helping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wrist function is a top priority for transradial amputees. However, the combined functional, biomechanical, and cognitive impact of using a powered prosthetic wrist is unclear. Here, we quantify task performance, compensatory movements, and cognitive load while three transradial amputees performed a modified Clothespin Relocation Task using two myoelectric prostheses with and without the wrists. The two myoelectric prostheses include a commercial prosthesis with a built-in powered wrist, and a newly developed inexpensive prosthetic wrist for research purposes, called the "Utah wrist", that can be adapted to work with various sockets and prostheses. For these three participants, task failure rate decreased significantly from 66% ± 12% without the wrist to 39% ± 9% with the Utah wrist. Compensatory forward leaning movements also decreased significantly, from 24.2° ± 2.5 without the wrist to 12.6° ± 1.0 with the Utah wrist, and from 23.6° ± 7.6 to 15.3° ± 7.2 with the commercial prosthesis with an integrated wrist. Compensatory leftward bending movements also significantly decreased, from 20.8° ± 8.6 to 12.3° ± 5.3, for the commercial with an integrated wrist. Importantly, simultaneous myoelectric control of either prosthetic wrist had no significant impact on cognitive load, as assessed by the NASA Task Load Index survey and a secondary detection response task. This work suggests that functional prosthetic wrists can improve dexterity and reduce compensation without significantly increasing cognitive effort. These results, and the introduction of a new inexpensive prosthetic wrist for research purposes, can aid future research and development and guide the prescription of upper-limb prostheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New legal regimes in various jurisdictions have increased the accountability of senior individuals in financial services to attempt to prevent wrongdoing. This article critically evaluates these efforts using insights from the behavioural sciences research on accountability, the regulatory theory on enforcement, and the criminological literature on compliance. This inquiry is pursued through an analysis of the Senior Managers and Certification Regime (SMCR) and the Banking Executive Accountability Regime (BEAR) in the UK and Australia respectively. These individual accountability regimes (IARs) are designed to make it easier to identify which senior individual is responsible for failing to address wrongdoing within their area of activity. Though often championed for ratcheting up accountability to tackle perceived impunity for wrongdoing, this article explores the limits of IARs. While acknowledging their strengths and merits, it troubles the expectations that such regimes are necessarily effective ways of priming certain anticipated behaviours and increasing cognitive load to slow decision-making processes. It considers the extent to which these regimes may be ineffective given what is known about the miserly nature of human cognition, the tendency to circumvent efforts to encourage ‘right’ decisions, and the inability of individual accountability regimes to address broader structural issues in financial markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Worked examples support initial skill acquisition. They often show skill application on content knowledge from another, "exemplifying" domain (e.g., argumentation skills have to be applied to some contents). Although learners' focus should remain on the skill, learners need to understand the content knowledge to benefit from worked examples. Previous studies relied on exemplifying domains that are familiar and contain simple topics, to keep learners' focus on skill acquisition. Aim: We examined whether using a relevant exemplifying domain would allow learners to acquire both skills and content knowledge simultaneously, or whether relevant content distracts from the main learning goal of skill acquisition. Methods and results: In a training study with 142 psychology students, we used example-based learning materials with an exemplifying domain that was either relevant or irrelevant for participants' course outcomes. We assessed cognitive load, declarative knowledge about skills and course-related content knowledge, and argumentation quality. Incorporating relevant content knowledge in worked examples did not reduce learning outcomes compared to a condition using an irrelevant exemplifying domain. Discussion: Contrary to previous research, the results suggest that worked examples with a relevant exemplifying domain could possibly be an efficient teaching method for fostering skills and content knowledge simultaneously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis article examines the use of mobile dictionary and/or machine-translation (MT) apps to facilitate the learning of (semi-)technical music words. A total of 93 Chinese students were randomly assigned into three groups (31 each): the Dictionary Group, the MT Group, and the Dictionary + MT Group. They translated sentences containing the target semi-technical or technical words with the help of mobile dictionary or MT apps or both. It was found that the Dictionary Group had the best retention rates of semi-technical and technical words; the Dictionary + MT Group was in-between; and the MT Group had the worst retention rates. Analysis of dictionary look-up behaviors further showed that the Dictionary Group looked up twice as many (semi-)technical words as the Dictionary + MT Group. These findings are explained from the perspective of Cognitive Load Theory to show how the Dictionary Group had the best level of mental resources germane to vocabulary learning. Despite the inter-group differences of retention rates, perception surveys showed that the groups did not differ in their attitudes towards the dictionary or MT apps, suggesting that student performances and perceptions were misaligned. Based on the research findings, the article offers pedagogical implications for mobile-assisted learning of specialized words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is important for people to disengage attention from a distraction, which can help them complete the task at hand as quickly as possible. Recent studies have shown that people's attention stays longer on reward‐distractors than on loss‐distractors, and a delay in attentional disengagement is noted when reward‐distractors are present. However, few studies have examined whether attentional disengagement from an evaluative distractor relies upon working memory (WM) components. In the present study, we used an attentional disengagement paradigm in which reward‐ or loss‐distractors were presented at a central location and the target was presented at a peripheral location, in combination with different WM tasks. The results from Experiment 1 showed that participants were slower to disengage their attention from a central reward‐distractor than a loss‐distractor regardless of cognitive load when the phonological loop component of WM was involved. The results from Experiment 2 revealed that people had difficulty in shifting their attention away from a reward‐distractor in comparison to a loss‐distractor when spatial WM was low, whereas no such difference was observed when spatial WM was high. We conclude that WM components differently modulate attentional disengagement from evaluative distractors. That is, the processing of evaluative (reward and loss) distractors may rely on the same cognitive resources as the spatial WM component, but not the phonological loop component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging consensus in the medical and public health spheres encourages removing race and ethnicity from algorithms used in clinical decision-making. Although clinical algorithms remain appealing given their promise to lighten the cognitive load of medical practice and save time for providers, they risk exacerbating existing health disparities. Race is a strong risk marker of health outcomes, yet it is not a risk factor. The use of race as a factor in medical algorithms suggests that the effect of race is intrinsic to the patient or that its effects can be distinct or separated from other social and environmental variables. By contrast, incisive public health analysis coupled with a race-conscious perspective recognizes that race serves as a marker of countless other dynamic variables and that structural racism, rather than race, compromises the health of racially oppressed individuals. This perspective offers a historical and theoretical context for the current debates regarding the use of race in clinical algorithms, clinical and epidemiologic perspectives on "risk," and future directions for research and policy interventions that combat color-evasive racism and follow the principles of race-conscious medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on cognitive load theory has historically focused on identifying the processes and strategies that enhance learning outcomes. Less attention has been given to the ways in which cognitive load may interact with the motivational and emotional aspects of learning. The aim of the present study is to examine the extent to which experienced cognitive load directly impacts self-efficacy during course-based instruction, after controlling for learning. In Study 1, results showed that within-time measurements of undergraduate students (n = 390) revealed a strong negative association between reported cognitive load and self-efficacy. However, across-time measurements revealed a positive relationship in which higher load predicted increased self-efficacy at later time points. Study 2 (n = 281) showed similar results using a different measure of cognitive load. Findings point to increases in self-efficacy being a consequence of the cognitive load imposed by instruction, rather than a precursor of the decision to invest mental effort. Furthermore, the differential relationships between cognitive load and self-efficacy within and across time highlight different types of motivational costs associated with invested mental effort as perceived by students. As a result, within and across time impacts of cognitive load offer both an enhanced understanding of cognition–motivation interactions and a potentially new approach to empirically differentiating between and quantifying intrinsic and extraneous load types. Educational Impact and Implications Statement: Cognition and motivation have traditionally been examined separately with little attention paid to how the cognitive processing of information itself may influence motivational beliefs. This study uses cognitive load theory to analyze the ways in which mental effort shapes concurrent and subsequent self-efficacy. Findings indicate that effort allocated to content difficulty positively predicts self-efficacy across time, and effort allocated to other factors such as unhelpful features of instruction and instructional materials negatively predicts concurrent self-efficacy. These results suggest that effort allocation due to instructional features has an important role to play on learners' motivation, independent of how much they learn, so instructional design decisions are important to consider even when they do not seem to directly impact learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Dismounted military operations require soldiers to complete cognitive tasks whilst undertaking demanding and repeated physical taskings. Objective: To assess the effects of repeated fast load carriage bouts on cognitive performance, perceptual responses, and psychophysiological markers. Methods: Twelve civilian males (age, 28 ± 8 y; stature, 186 ± 6 cm; body mass 84.3 ± 11.1 kg; V̇O2max, 51.5 ± 6.4 mL·kg−1·min−1) completed three ∼65-min bouts of a Fast Load Carriage Protocol (FLCP), each interspersed with a 65-min recovery period, carrying a representative combat load of 25 kg. During each FLCP, cognitive function was assessed using a Shoot/Don't-Shoot Task (SDST) and a Military-Specific Auditory N-Back Task (MSANT), along with subjective ratings. Additional psychophysiological markers (heart rate variability, salivary cortisol, and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate concentrations) were also measured. Results: A main effect of bout on MSANT combined score metric (p <.001, Kendall's W = 69.084) and for time on the accuracy-speed trade-off parameter of the SDST (p =.025, Ѡ2 =.024) was evident. These likely changes in cognitive performance were coupled with subjective data indicating that participants perceived that they increased their mental effort to maintain cognitive performance (bout: p <.001, Ѡ2 =.045; time: p <.001, Ѡ2 =.232). Changes in HRV and salivary markers were also evident, likely tracking increased stress. Conclusion: Despite the increase in physiological and psychological stress, cognitive performance was largely maintained; purportedly a result of increased mental effort. Application: Given the likely increase in dual-task interference in the field environment compared with the laboratory, military commanders should seek approaches to manage cognitive load where possible, to maintain soldier performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive load impairs dual-task performance of autistic and non-autistic participants. • Autistic participants deviate more from the baseline lane change path. • Correct lane changing was comparable for autistic and non-autistic participants. • Lane change initiation was comparable for autistic and non-autistic participants. This study investigated the impact of cognitive load on driving among autistic individuals with the use of an adapted, driving simulator-based, Lane Change Task (LCT). A secondary task was used to induce increasing verbal WM load. A total of 51 male participants, 17 autistic and 34 non-autistic individuals participated in the study. Participants drove the simulator-based LCT without (baseline) and with a three-level auditory-verbal response N-back task (i.e., 0-back,1-back, and 2-back) developed to tax working memory capacity. The included driving parameters were: mean deviation in the lane change path (MDEV), percentage of correct lane changes (PCL) in response to a lane change sign, and lane change initiation (LCI). The percentage of error rate (PER) was included to measure participants' performance on the secondary task. Dual-task performance of both groups deteriorated with increasing cognitive load, but this effect was more pronounced in the autistic group. Specifically, the performance of both group on MDEV, PCL, and PER suffered from the increasing cognitive load. Nevertheless, neither PCL nor LCI differ between autistic and non-autistic participants. Notably, LCI also deteriorated with increasing cognitive load for non-autistic participants, but not for autistic participants. Similar to previous research, it is suggested that distracted driving should be eliminated as much as possible before occurring in the first place. Specific suggestions for eliminating distraction in autistic drivers are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As educators, we often seek to engage students' prior knowledge to help them learn new and potentially difficult science content. However, sometimes our experiences with the world lead us to create misconceptions that run counter to the scientific consensus. Refutational texts have been shown to be more effective at changing individuals' misconceptions compared to traditional (i.e., expository) texts. Sometimes, conceptual change materials might include irrelevant but interesting pictures geared toward increasing engagement or positive affect while learning. These are referred to as seductive pictures, and although they are intended to promote the situational interest of readers, they may hinder learning since they might cause cognitive overload. The current study sought to investigate the effects of text structure and seductive pictures on individuals' knowledge of genetically modified foods, situational interest, and cognitive loads. We found significant learning advantages for the refutational text groups and significant disadvantages for the seductive pictures groups. Additionally, the individuals who were exposed to seductive pictures demonstrated higher levels of extraneous cognitive load than those who were not. Implications and limitations of the present study are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For nearly two decades, augmented reality (AR) has found diverse applications in education, particularly in science education, where its efficacy has been supported by relevant theories and many empirical studies. However, previous studies have revealed the following research deficit: While AR technology appears to influence learning-related variables, at the time of this study only few research on the use of AR glasses in physics, a discipline for which this technology seems particularly promising in the context of laboratory experiments, has been found. Thus, the present study uses an experimental comparison group design to investigate the question of how the use of AR glasses in a physics laboratory experiment (compared to in a learning setting without AR) influences students' motivation to learn, their cognitive load during the learning process and their learning achievement. The study (sample size N = 75) investigated the impact of AR glasses in a physics laboratory experiment on optical polarization. Results align with prior research, indicating heightened motivation among learners using AR applications. However, the absence of a significant difference in cognitive load between AR and non-AR learners was unexpected. Despite expectations based on spatial contiguity, learners with AR showed no advantage in learning achievement, challenging existing meta-analyses in physics education. These findings suggest a need to shift focus from surface features, like specific AR technology, to the content design of AR applications. Future studies should analyze the deep structure of AR applications, identifying features conducive to learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactive educational videos have grown in popularity in the higher education setting over the last two decades. This exploratory study investigates the mediating and moderating effects of user engagement (UE) on the relationships between the antecedents of UE (i.e., intrinsic load, extraneous load, germane load, and task value) and learning satisfaction. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted in June 2023. We conveniently sampled 49 year-one undergraduate students, who completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of items pertaining to cognitive load, task value, user engagement, and learning satisfaction. Data was analysed using hierarchical linear regression models. Findings revealed that reward fully mediated the relationship between germane load and learning satisfaction. In addition, reward was also found to moderate the relation between (a) germane load and learning satisfaction, and (b) task value and learning satisfaction. These findings highlight the importance of creating rewarding experiences when designing interactive educational videos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aims to expand our understanding of how to facilitate student feedback engagement processes in a computer-based formative assessment environment. In the present research, we designed a new type of elaborated feedback in terms of combining the correct solution and the erroneous solution, and the erroneous solution matched the student's initial answer. Furthermore, we analyzed whether this feedback had a stronger positive effect than the other three types of feedback containing different complexities of correct information (i.e., Knowledge of Correct Response, Problem-Solving Cues, or Complete Correct Solutions). As predicted, students who received correct and erroneous solutions experienced more positive feedback perceptions, perceived lower extraneous cognitive load and higher germane cognitive load, and achieved higher transfer performance. This research is one of the first that provides empirical evidence for the positive impact of incorporating students' errors into the feedback design, and this novel insight can extend current theories on how to optimize feedback design to promote students' active processing and use of feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online learning, including in higher education, is an active part of the modern educational landscape. Spherical video-based immersive virtual reality (SV-IVR) is useful in this field. This study aimed to determine the impact of teaching with the use of SV-IVR on the critical thinking and cognitive load of 140 students. The findings of the study revealed that students exhibited low levels of mental effort and mental load based on the observed indicators. Compared to the traditional teaching method, the SV-IVR model had a better effect on improving students' critical thinking skills. The findings can help teachers develop new learning models using video-based virtual reality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The ability to measure cognitive load in the workplace provides several opportunities to improve workplace learning. In recent years, virtual reality (VR) has seen an increase in use for training and learning applications due to improvements in technology and reduced costs. This study aims to focus on the use of simulation task load index (SIM-TLX), a recently developed self-reported measure of cognitive load for virtual environments to measure cognitive load while undertaking tasks in different environments. Design/methodology/approach: The authors conducted a within-subject design experiment involving 14 participants engaged in digit-recall n-back tasks (1-back and 2-back) in two VR environments: a neutral grey environment and a realistic industrial ozone facility. Cognitive load was then assessed using the SIM-TLX. Findings: The findings revealed higher task difficulty for the 2-back task due to higher mental demand. Furthermore, a notable interaction emerged between cognitive load and different virtual environments. Research limitations/implications: This study relied solely on an n-back task and SIM-TLX self-report measure to assess cognitive load. Future studies should consider including ecologically valid tasks and physiological measurement tools such as eye-tracking to measure cognitive load. Practical implications: Identifying cognitive workload sources during VR tasks, especially in complex work environments, is considered beneficial to the application of VR training aimed at improving workplace learning. Originality/value: This study provides unique insights into measuring cognitive load from various sources as defined by the SIM-TLX sub-scales to investigate the impact of simulated workplace environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses cognitive load in simultaneous interpreting on the basis of naturalistic data from the Polish Interpreting Corpus (PINC). We wanted to find evidence both for the current load (visible immediately after the exposure to the source text word) and the exported load (visible after the production of the translation equivalent in the target text). We operationalised cognitive load as disruptions in fluency, i.e., silent and filled pauses. We assumed that low-frequency words would trigger higher current cognitive load than high-frequency words and cognates. This could lead to exported load and create a spillover effect, i.e., a decreased interpreting performance somewhere downstream. Our results show increased current cognitive load when processing low frequency words as compared to high frequency words and a directionality effect. We found no evidence for the spillover effect. Our findings suggest that the frequency of source text words affects the current cognitive load especially in B-A interpreting, potentially pointing at comprehension problems. Lexical frequency might not be a good predictor of the spillover effect. The study extends research on cognitive load in interpreting on the basis of naturalistic data and shows future research avenues for studies of the spillover effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This study investigates support strategies to enhance basic software education as a liberal arts course at Konkuk University, South Korea, by integrating design thinking and computational thinking to mitigate the cognitive load of programming. Methods: A study with 190 students utilized a learner-centered approach, incorporating design thinking and computational problem-solving, and evaluated its effectiveness through pre-and post-tests and structural equation modeling. Results: The intervention successfully reduced the cognitive load associated with programming tasks and led to positive changes in computational thinking factors. Our analysis also revealed that cognitive load negatively impacted all computational thinking factors and that improvements in computational thinking factors were sustained into subsequent stages of the learning process. Conclusion: The findings suggest that as differences in student learning capabilities become more pronounced, a variety of tailored learning strategies must be employed. Software education should incorporate computational thinking factors such as problem decomposition, abstraction, and algorithmic procedures to lower cognitive load. Additionally, it is crucial to foster immersion in learning by implementing attention, relevance, confidence, and achievement strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The open and generative nature of multimedia learning environments tends to cause cognitive overload in learners, and cognitive load is difficult for researchers to observe objectively because of its implicit and complex nature. Event-related potentials (ERP), a method of studying potential changes associated with specific events or stimuli by recording the electroencephalogram (EEG), has become an important method of measuring cognitive load in cognitive psychology. Although many studies have relied on ERP output measurements to compare different levels of cognitive load in multimedia learning, the results of the effect of cognitive load on ERP have been inconsistent. In this study, we used a metaanalysis of evidence-based research to quantitatively analyze 17 experimental studies to quantitatively evaluate which ERP component (amplitude) is most sensitive to cognitive load. Forty five effect sizes from 26 studies involving 360 participants were calculated. (1) The results of the studies analyzed in subgroups indicated high level effect sizes for P300 and P200 (2) Analyses of moderating variables for signal acquisition did not find that different methods of signal acquisition had a significant effect on the measurement of cognitive load (3) Analyses of moderating variables for task design found that a task system with feedback was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load, and that designing for 3 levels of cognitive load was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load than for 2 levels of cognitive load. (4) Analyses of continuous moderating variables for subject characteristics did not find significant effects of age, gender, or sample size on the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparison is an important mechanism for learning in general, and comparing two worked examples has garnered support over the last 15 years as an effective tool for learning algebra in mainstream classrooms. This study was aimed at improving our understanding of how Modified for Language Support-Worked Example Pairs (MLS-WEPs) contribute to effective mathematics learning in an ESOL (English to Speakers of Other Languages) context. It investigated a novel instructional approach to help English Learners (ELs) develop better understanding in mathematical reasoning, problem solving, and literacy skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking). Findings suggest that MLS-WEPs not only enhanced ELs' ability to solve algebra problems, but it also improved their written explanation skills and enabled them to transfer such skills to different mathematical concepts. Moreover, when controlling for ELs' prior knowledge, the effectiveness of the MLS-WEPs intervention for performing and explaining calculations did not vary by their English proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to analyze the effect of cognitive load and social value orientation on managers' preferences when they face with two types of restructuring choices in financially distressed firms: the first belonging to the family of organizational restructuring (massive layoffs) and the second to the family of financial restructuring (debt increases). Design/methodology/approach: The authors investigate experimentally the impact of managers' cognitive load and social value orientation on the decision to restructure leveraged buyout (LBO) firms in financial distress by using either massive layoffs or debt increases. Findings: By investigating the impact of managers' cognitive load and social value orientation on the restructuring decision of an LBO firm in financial distress, the research reveals that, on average, cognitively loaded managers prefer massive layoffs over increased debt levels. The massive layoffs seemingly provide a relatively easier way to avoid conflict with influential, residual claimants. In contrast, social value–oriented managers actively avoid massive layoffs and prefer to increase debt. Research limitations/implications: These results imply that the performance mechanisms emphasized to improve agency relations, for example, in LBOs, have their own limitations during periods of financial distress. This study shows that one of these limits is related to cognitive distortions and personality traits. Originality/value: In this research, the originality lies in understanding how managers' internal factors affect their restructuring decision-making, in the case of LBO firms in financial distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThis mixed-methods study investigates the effects of highlights and annotations on reading comprehension among Chinese EFL students majoring in teaching English as a foreign language, within a computer-assisted interactive reading model. The study involved 183 participants, randomly assigned to three experimental groups and a control group, each utilizing distinct combinations of highlights and annotations to evaluate their impact on reading comprehension. The results indicate that the intervention groups exhibited significant improvements in reading comprehension compared to the control group. Qualitative feedback from participants revealed increased engagement and metacognitive awareness, suggesting that these interactive features function as effective cognitive scaffolds. By facilitating information processing and reducing cognitive load, highlights and annotations enhance the reading experience and comprehension. These findings support cognitive load theory and underscore the pedagogical potential of integrating interactive elements into digital reading materials. This integration can promote active reading strategies and learner-centered instruction, offering valuable insights for educators and curriculum designers. By demonstrating the efficacy of technology-enhanced reading interventions, this research contributes to the broader field of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), emphasizing the role of interactive tools in improving language proficiency and academic success among EFL learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Error monitoring is essential for detecting errors and may facilitate behavioral adjustments that can reduce or prevent future errors. At times, error monitoring must occur while individuals are engaged in other, cognitively demanding tasks that might consume processing resources necessary for error monitoring. Here, we set out to determine whether concurrent working memory (WM) load interferes with error monitoring, as measured using event‐related potentials, the error‐related negativity (Ne/ERN), and error positivity (Pe). Fifty‐four participants (n = 33 female) completed an arrowhead flanker task, with trials presented under low (2 letter) or high (6 letter) WM load. Participants were required to hold letter strings in memory and to recall these letters at the end of a set of flanker trials. Results showed that WM load reduced the Pe but did not affect the Ne/ERN. Therefore, WM load appeared to attenuate later, more elaborated stages of error processing, though initial error detection was unaffected. Additionally, high WM load slowed reaction times overall, but did not lead to a significant increase in errors. As such, slower responses may have helped participants maintain comparable accuracy for low‐load versus high‐load trials. Overall, results indicate that WM load interferes with the evaluation of error significance, which could interfere with behavioral adaptations over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the effects of collaborative augmented reality activities supported by the 5E teaching model on students’ motivation, cognitive load, and satisfaction levels in a science course. In this context, explanatory design, one of the mixed research methods, was used in this study. The research process was conducted with 18 sixth-grade (5 girls and 13 boys) students studying in a private school for four hours a week for four weeks in a science course. In the quantitative dimension of the study, the effects of collaborative augmented reality activities were examined using one group pretest-posttest design through questionnaires and scales, and student views were evaluated through semi-structured interviews as a result. The quantitative data analysis used the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and descriptive statistics methods. Qualitative data were analyzed through the content analysis method. As a result of the study, it was observed that collaborative augmented reality activities positively affected students’ motivation and satisfaction levels in the science learning process. In addition, collaborative augmented reality activities contributed to balancing the cognitive load. In this regard, it can be asserted that students’ learning processes can be made more effective using collaborative augmented reality activities, especially in teaching complex science subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to examine the effectiveness of facial anthropomorphism of learning material design in improving learning and other relevant outcomes. We searched Web of Science, PsycInfo, and PsycArticle for studies published before February 2023. Learning outcomes included transfer, retention, and comprehension. Other relevant outcomes included affective-motivational, effort, and experience outcomes. Outcomes that were reported in at least five independent experiments were meta-analyzed; otherwise, a narrative synthesis was performed. Subgroup analysis by participants' age and material type was employed for learning outcomes. A total of 33 independent experiments from 13 research articles were identified and analyzed. For learning outcomes, facial anthropomorphism yielded significant improvements in transfer (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.28, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.40, p < 0.001), retention (SMD 0.31, 95% CI 0.14 to 0.48, p < 0.001), and comprehension (SMD 0.46, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.64, p < 0.001). Anthropomorphism yielded stronger effect in retention among juvenile students and for static learning materials. Additionally, anthropomorphism design achieved significantly positive effects in positive affect, intrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation change, perceived difficulty, intrinsic cognitive load, germane cognitive load, perceived learning outcome, aesthetics, and enjoyment. Nineteen outcomes were narratively analyzed and mixed results were found. Facial anthropomorphism design of multimedia learning materials can induce positive emotions in learners and improve their intrinsic motivation that in turn facilitates learners' transfer, retention, and comprehension performance. The study provides valuable insights that can guide educators and multimedia designers in applying facial anthropomorphism with learning materials to facilitate learning outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students increasingly carry out learning activities in online learning spaces, but they suffer from the problem of insufficient teacher guidance and emotional support. Pedagogical agents are able to communicate with learners in different roles and interactions which to a certain extent can make up for the shortcomings of online learning spaces. To further enhance the teaching effectiveness of pedagogical agents, this study explored the effects of pedagogical agents' role type and voice emotional design on learners' learning outcomes (knowledge retention / transfer) and learning process (learning interest / academic emotion / cognitive load / intimacy / social presence / learning experience). Our study tested the interaction effects of two pedagogical agents' images (teacher role/peer role) and two pedagogical agents' voices (traditional synthesized voices/emotional synthesized voices) using a sample of 206 s grade students. The results show that the emotional design of voice does not have an obvious impact in relieving students' emotional stress and improving their learning process and outcomes, however the interaction effect of peer role and voice emotional design does have clear advantages. The emotional design of voice may increase learners' extrinsic cognitive load, therefore this design should try to minimize the extrinsic cognitive load, pay attention to guiding learners' intrinsic cognitive load, and promote the related cognitive load. Meanwhile, in the design process of pedagogical agents, we should work to enhance intimacy and learning experience, rendering pleasurable emotions which will lessen learners' anxiety and boredom through the emotional design of role types and voices. To conclude, the interaction effect of character and emotional voice has a practical application prospect only when utilized with the appropriate role type and reasonable voice emotionalization design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has consistently demonstrated that students often possess an inadequate understanding of fundamental quantum optics concepts, even after formal instruction. Findings from physics education research suggest that introducing a mathematical formalism to describe quantum optical phenomena may enhance students' conceptual understanding of quantum optics. This paper investigates whether using formal descriptions of quantum optics phenomena – such as photon anticorrelation at a beamsplitter or single-photon interference in a Michelson interferometer – expressed in Dirac notation, can support secondary school students in developing functional thinking about photons. To investigate this, we conducted a clusterrandomized field study, comparing the improvement in functional thinking between 67 students in the intervention group, who were taught using both qualitative and quantitative reasoning, and 66 students in the control group, who were taught using only qualitative reasoning. The results indicate that mathematical formalism can indeed promote functional thinking about photons. However, the comparison between the intervention and control groups revealed that the control group exhibited a greater increase in functional thinking than the intervention group. In response to these findings, we conducted a follow-up study aimed at gaining a deeper understanding of the cognitive load associated with both approaches. Specifically, we compared the intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load of 71 students in the intervention group with those of 65 students in the control group. The data analysis revealed that the two groups had statistically significant differences in intrinsic cognitive load while the extraneous cognitive load did not difer statistically significant, indicating a higher mental effort associated to the quantitative reasoning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Augmented reality (AR) technology involving head-mounted displays (HMD) represents a significant innovation in medical education, particularly for training in guided invasive procedures. Novice physicians often face challenges in simultaneously identifying anatomical landmarks and performing procedures when learning point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). Our primary objective was to determine the effectiveness of AR in enhancing physician training for ultrasound-guided interventions using AR visual overlays. The secondary objective was to compare cognitive load between traditional ultrasound training settings and AR-assisted training settings. Methods: This randomized crossover study, conducted from 2021 to 2022, compared performance and cognitive load of trainees attempting accurate central venous catheter (CVC) placement using an AR-HMD to display ultrasound images (AR-US), compared with standard ultrasound without visual overlay (S-US). We enrolled 47 trainees, including 22 final-year undergraduate medical students and 25 postgraduate physicians (years 1–4) from three hospitals in Taiwan. All participants had basic training in US-guided CVC placement but lacked AR-US experience. Performance and cognitive load were assessed using time measurements and NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), covering the dimensions of Mental-, Physical- and Temporal Demand, and Performance, Effort and Frustration. Results: We found AR technology reduced the time required for critical steps in CVC placement, while minimizing users' neck strain. Female and junior trainees using AR-US identified anatomy and localized veins faster than those using S-US. Using AR-US, female trainees significantly outperformed males in anatomical identification [mean difference (MD): -10.79 s (95% CI: -2.37 to -19.21)]. The NASA-TLX cognitive load assessment showed mental workload trending lower in all dimensions except performance while using AR-US, compared to S-US. Similarly, junior trainees' effort- and frustration scores were lower [MD: -2.73 (95% CI: -5.04 to -0.41) and -2.41 (95% CI: -4.51 to -0.31), respectively], as were female trainees' effort scores [MD: -3.07 (95% CI: -6.10 to -0.03)] when using AR-US, compared to S-US, whereby these differences were statistically significant. Conclusions: AR technology helped improve trainee performance and reduced cognitive load during ultrasound-guided CVC placement. These findings support the application of AR technology to enhance physician training in ultrasound-guided interventional procedures, suggesting that AR-HMDs could be a valuable tool in medical education. Trial registration: The trial was registered with Clinicaltrials.gov on 20/09/2023 as a clinical trial, under the identifier NCT 06055400. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have left a significant gap in researching the relationships among affective variables, cognitive factors, and learning outcomes in second language (L2) writing. To fill in this research gap, the present study set out to unveil the relationships between L2 writers' cognitive load, anxiety, and writing performance. A total of 197 Grade 12 students from a Chinese public high school were recruited. Participants were required to complete a story continuation writing task (SCWT), the L2 Writing Cognitive Load Scale, and the L2 Writing Anxiety Scale. Structural equation modeling showed that: 1) L2 learners' cognitive load had a direct effect on writing anxiety which in turn directly impacted SCWT performance; 2) L2 writing anxiety fully mediated the effect of cognitive load on SCWT performance; and 3) Cognitive load mainly influenced cognitive anxiety, a subcomponent of writing anxiety. The implications of the findings for L2 teaching and learning are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In tangible irreversible human-machine interactions (HMIs), erroneous inputs resulting from users’ unfamiliarity, inattention, or ingrained habits can lead to unintended consequences. Although some design measures like buttons with protective shells or safety switches before critical actions have been implemented to minimize human errors in both everyday products and industrial interfaces, a cohesive guiding strategy on when, where, and how to prevent unintended consequences is lacking. Inspired by the confirmation dialog boxes commonly utilized in graphical user interfaces, this study proposes design strategies for effective tangible confirmation behaviors in HMIs. Initially, a workshop was conducted to gather design cases and explore potential design opportunities in future scenarios. By analysing the outcomes, we propose an evaluation method for assessing the necessity and complexity requirements of confirmation design and introduce a design library considering complexity levels graded by users’ time, effort, and cognitive load expenditure. Subsequently, a user behavior experiment was conducted to validate the feasibility and efficacy of the proposed strategies. Our strategies offer valuable references for designers, highlighting the significance of confirmation design in preventing human errors. Following these strategies, designers and engineers can integrate more Kansai engineering principles into HMIs to ensure user safety, protect property, and enhance interaction efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the accuracy of place name translation during remote simultaneous interpreting (RSI) when interpreters were required to use a different variant of their native language. Participants, professional English/ Mandarin from mainland China, were divided into two groups: the Taiwan group, using the Taiwanese Mandarin variant, and the control group, using the mainland variant. The source speech consisted of three lists of place names, some of which had the same Chinese translation in both the mainland China Mandarin variant and the Taiwanese Mandarin variant, while others did not. The two groups of participants performed RSI from English into Chinese. The analysis focused on the third item in each list, chosen due to the differences in Chinese translations between the two Mandarin variants. Results showed no significant difference in the number of incorrect translations for the first test item between the two groups. However, significant variations were observed for the second and third test items, potentially linked to progressive mental fatigue and increased cognitive demand faced by the Taiwan group participants. This suggests that using a non-habitual language variant can impact the accuracy of RSI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The promotion and application of autonomous vehicles (AVs) will bring huge benefits to society in economic and environmental aspects, and the public acceptance degree is a crucial influencing factor. Based on technology acceptance model (TAM) and information system success (ISS) model, this research develops a new framework from the perspective of AVs information system to explain public acceptance. The framework explores the relationship between variables such as system quality, information quality, service quality, perceived usefulness, perceived ease-of-use and AVS acceptance, and it also examines the mediating role of perceived ease-of-use and perceived usefulness. Based on a survey of 323 respondents, the results indicate that system quality, information quality, and service quality are key factors affecting AVS acceptance. Additionally, compared to perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use manifested a greater mediation on explanatory variables with AVs acceptance. Moreover, the research also makes recommendations for AVs manufacturers to focus on system quality and information interaction mode in the design and development process of AVs. And thus, making AVs easier to use without cognitive load could improve the AVs acceptance and adoption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are rapidly transforming the field of traditional artistic creation, influencing painting processes and human creativity. This study explores human–AI cooperation in real-time artistic drawing by using the AIGC tool KREA.AI. Participants wear eye trackers and perform drawing tasks by adjusting the AI parameters. The research aims to investigate the impact of cross-screen and non-cross-screen conditions, as well as different viewing strategies, on cognitive load and the degree of creative stimulation during user–AI collaborative drawing. Adopting a mixed design, it examines the influence of different cooperation modes and visual search methods on creative efficacy and visual perception through eye-tracking data and creativity performance scales. The cross-screen type and task type have a significant impact on total interval duration, number of fixation points, average fixation duration, and average pupil diameter in occlusion decision-making and occlusion hand drawing. There are significant differences in the variables of average gaze duration and average pupil diameter among different task types and cross-screen types. In non-cross-screen situations, occlusion and non-occlusion have a significant impact on average gaze duration and pupil diameter. Tasks in non-cross-screen environments are more sensitive to visual processing. The involvement of AI in hand drawing in non-cross-screen collaborative drawing by designers has a significant impact on their visual perception. These results help us to gain a deeper understanding of user behaviour and cognitive load under different visual tasks and cross-screen conditions. The analysis of the creative efficiency scale data reveals significant differences in designers' ability to supplement and improve AI ideas across different modes. This indicates that the extent of AI participation in the designer's hand-drawn creative process significantly impacts the designer's behaviour when negotiating design ideas with the AI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Special Operations Forces (SOF) often conduct operations in physiologically stressful environments such as severe heat, cold, or hypoxia, which can induce decreases in a variety of cognitive abilities. Given the promising empirical demonstration of the efficacy of exogenous ketone monoester (KME) supplementation in attenuating cognitive performance decrease during hypoxia at rest in a laboratory setting, we conducted a real-world, field experiment examining KME's efficacy during high-altitude mountaineering, an austere environment in which US SOF have conducted increasing numbers of operations over the past two decades. Methods: Specifically, 34 students and cadre at the US Army 10th Special Forces Group Special Operations Advanced Mountaineering School (SOAMS) participated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PLA)-controlled crossover trial (KME vs. PLA) over 2 days of tactical mountain operations training. The participants ascended from 7,500 ft in altitude (basecamp) to 12,460 ft on 1 day and 13,627 ft the other day (in randomized order), while performing various training activities inducing high physical and cognitive loads over 8-12 h, and consumed six doses of KME or PLA 2-3 h apart throughout each training day. Results and Discussion: While KME increased blood ketone levels and decreased glucose levels, there were no clear indications that the elevated ketone level enhanced physical or cognitive performance. KME also produced a greater incidence of heartburn, nausea, and vomiting. In these elite operators, highaltitude mountaineering had a limited impact on cognitive performance, and KME supplementation did not demonstrate any benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maritime studies, encompassing a range of disciplines, increasingly rely on advanced data analytics, particularly in the context of navigation. As technology advances, the statistical averaging of large datasets has become a critical component of these analyses. However, recent studies have highlighted discrepancies between statistical predictions and observable realities, especially in high-stress environments like port approach procedures conducted by marine pilots. This study analyzed physiological responses recorded during simulation exercises involving experienced marine pilots. The focus was not on the specific outcomes of the simulations but on the potential faults arising from conventional statistical signal processing, particularly mean-centered approaches. A large dataset of signals was generated, including one signal with a dominant characteristic intentionally designed to introduce imbalance, mimicking the uneven distribution of real-world data. Initial analysis suggested that the average physiological response of the pilots followed an S-shaped curve, indicative of a psychophysiological reaction to stress. However, further post hoc analysis revealed that this pattern was primarily influenced by a single participant's data. This finding raises concerns about the generalizability of the S-curve as a typical stress response in maritime pilots. The results underscore the limitations of relying solely on conventional statistical methods, such as mean-centered approaches, in interpreting complex datasets. The study calls into question the validity of standardizing data interpretations based on dominant characteristic curves, particularly in environments as intricate as maritime navigation. The research highlights the need for a re-evaluation of these methods to ensure more reliable and nuanced conclusions in maritime studies. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on data interpretation in maritime research, emphasizing the critical need to reassess conventional statistical signal processing techniques. By recognizing the potential pitfalls in data generalization, the study advocates for more robust analytical approaches to better capture the complexities of realworld maritime challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overall objective of this study was to examine the effect of blended learning on improving students’ mathematical cognitive demand and their extraneous and germane cognitive load in learning calculus of several variables. Guided by constructivist and cognitive load theories, a quasi-experimental design was conducted in three public universities. A total of 67 second-year undergraduate mathematics students participated for 4 months. The study used a mixed research method with social constructivism augmented by pragmatism. Data were analysed using analysis of co-variance procedure and thematic analysis and discussed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The findings revealed that the treatment group students’ mathematical cognitive demand (treatment (TG1) (M = 70.9, SD = 10.8) and treatment (TG2) (M = 69.3, SD = 20.5) were significantly higher than the posttest scores of students in the comparison group in CG (M = 58.8, SD = 13.5), (p = 0.00)) with effect size of 0.25. Moreover, their germane cognitive load had improved and extraneous cognitive load reduced significantly compared to the comparison group. To conclude, mathematics cognitive demand can be improved with blended learning. These findings imply that blending mathematics instruction in higher education institutions is useful to policymakers. The finding also revealed that cognitive load was found a negative and significant predictor of mathematics cognitive demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While individuals fail to assess their mental health subjectively in their day-to-day activities, the recent development of consumer-grade wearable devices has enormous potential to monitor daily workload objectively by acquiring physiological signals. Therefore, this work collected consumer-grade physiological signals from twenty-four participants, following a four-hour cognitive load elicitation paradigm with self-chosen tasks in uncontrolled environments and a four-hour mental workload elicitation paradigm in a controlled environment. The recorded dataset of approximately 315 hours consists of electroencephalography, acceleration, electrodermal activity, and photoplethysmogram data balanced across low and high load levels. Participants performed office-like tasks in the controlled environment (mental arithmetic, Stroop, N-Back, and Sudoku) with two defined difficulty levels and in the uncontrolled environments (mainly researching, programming, and writing emails). Each task label was provided by participants using two 5-point Likert scales of mental workload and stress and the pairwise NASA-TLX questionnaire. This data is suitable for developing real-time mental health assessment methods, conducting research on signal processing techniques for challenging environments, and developing personal cognitive load assistants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing cognitive load on infantry squad leaders is a common challenge in modern military operations. As this can increase health and safety risks, there is a need to study the factors responsible for the increase in cognitive load. Ecological situations inherently lack strong experimental controls; therefore, microworlds that simulate real tasks are the usual alternative to field studies. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are currently no microworlds that reproduce the main tasks of the squad leader during operations. This article adresses this gap by describing the design and validation of a new microworld: the Simulated Multitasking Environment for the Squad leader (SMES). Qualitative research was firstly conducted to highlight several squad leader's generic tasks (i.e., common to many situations in the field) that guided the design of the SMES. Psychometric validation of the SMES was then based on two experiments: (i) the first evaluated the microworld's psychometric qualities when tasks were performed individually; and (ii) the second explored concurrent tasks, reflecting real-world complexity. The results showed that the parameters manipulated for each task were relevant for inducing cognitive load, measured using a secondary detection response task and the NASA-TLX questionnaire. The SMES demonstrated satisfactory convergent and content validity in multitasking but not in single-task conditions. Performance in multitasking situations therefore does not seem to depend on task-specific skills, suggesting the existence of an independent factor-multitasking ability. Theoretical and practical implications of the SMES validation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study developed and evaluated a prototype for augmented reality (AR) interaction among multiple users sharing a three-dimensional hologram within a shared physical space. A systems requirements analysis was conducted to determine necessary interactions, followed by an iterative implementation plan with testing at each step. The application for the HoloLens 2 (HL2) headset was developed using Unity for 3D design, C# for programming, and Photon for multiplayer capabilities. The prototype was evaluated in a user study utilizing custom and NASA TLX questionnaires, comparing participants' self-reported task success with recorded data to assess the accuracy of selfassessments. The prototype effectively facilitated multi-user interactions within a shared environment, achieving acceptable synchronization for two users. Most participants successfully completed tasks, with TLX scores indicating low cognitive and mechanical load during AR task execution. This study demonstrates AR's viability for displaying and manipulating complex three-dimensional structures within a collaborative medical context among multiple individuals in the same physical space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]