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This study aims to explore the pathways and effects of cognitive defusion, marital satisfaction, and parent-child relationships within family dyads based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM) and the Common Fate Model (CFM). A questionnaire survey was administered to parents of high school students, resulting in the inclusion of valid data from 673 parent pairs (N = 1346; F: Mage = 45.89, SD = 3.35; M: Mage = 44.38, SD = 2.85) in the analysis. The APIM results revealed significant actor mediation effects. However, the partner mediation effects were partially significant. The CFM results indicated that family-level marital satisfaction significantly and fully mediated the relationship between parental cognitive defusion and the family-level parent-child relationship. Our study identified relationships between the core individual variable (cognitive defusion) in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), the marital subsystem (marital satisfaction), and the parent-child subsystem (parent-child relationship).This study not only deepens existing research on psychological flexibility and family relationships but also offers guidance for interventions aimed at improving parent-child relationships, marital relationships, and overall family harmony. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One's own voice undergoes unique processing that distinguishes it from others' voices, and thus listening to it may have a special neural basis for self-talk as an emotion regulation strategy. This study aimed to elucidate how neural effects of one's own voice differ from those of others' voices on the implementation of emotion regulation strategies. Twenty-one healthy adults were scanned using fMRI while listening to sentences synthesized in their own or others' voices for self-affirmation and cognitive defusion, which were based on mental commitments to strengthen one's positive aspects and imagining metaphoric actions to shake off negative aspects, respectively. The interaction effect between voice identity and strategy was observed in the superior temporal sulcus, middle temporal gyrus, and parahippocampal cortex, and activity in these regions showed that the uniqueness of one's own voice is reflected more strongly for cognitive defusion than for self-affirmation. This interaction was also seen in the precuneus, suggesting intertwining of self-referential processing and episodic memory retrieval in self-affirmation with one's own voice. These results imply that unique effects of one's own voice may be expressed differently due to the degree of engagement of neural sharpening-related regions and self-referential networks depending on the type of emotion regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Short mindfulness-based interventions have gained traction in research due to their positive impact on well-being, cognition, and clinical symptoms across various settings. However, these short-term trainings are viewed as preliminary steps within a more extensive transformative path, presumably leading to long-lasting trait changes. Despite this, little is still known about the brain correlates of these meditation traits. Methods: To address this gap, we investigated the neural correlates of meditation expertise in long-term Buddhist practitioners, comparing the large-scale brain functional connectivity of 28 expert meditators with 47 matched novices. Our hypothesis posited that meditation expertise would be associated with specific and enduring patterns of functional connectivity present during both meditative (open monitoring/open presence and loving-kindness and compassion meditations) and nonmeditative resting states, as measured by connectivity gradients. Results: Applying a support vector classifier to states not included in training, we successfully decoded expertise as a trait, demonstrating its non–state-dependent nature. The signature of expertise was further characterized by an increased integration of large-scale brain networks, including the dorsal and ventral attention, limbic, frontoparietal, and somatomotor networks. The latter correlated with a higher ability to create psychological distance from thoughts and emotions. Conclusions: Such heightened integration of bodily maps with affective and attentional networks in meditation experts could point toward a signature of the embodied cognition cultivated in these contemplative practices.

Background: Applying cognitive defusion techniques to enduring psychotic symptoms, such as delusions, presents both a challenge and a promising opportunity for psychiatric nurses to manage delusions among schizophrenia clients. Objective: This study aimed to examine the impact of cognitive defusion techniques on psychological flexibility, mindful awareness, cognitive fusion, and the believability of delusions in schizophrenia clients. Methodology: This study used a single-blind, parallel-arm Randomized Controlled Trial design. Over five weeks, 70 clients with schizophrenia were randomized to either the cognitive defusion intervention group (n = 35) or the control group (n = 35). Findings: The participants showed significant reductions in the believability of delusions, cognitive fusion, and psychological inflexibility immediately after the intervention and at follow-up. Notable enhancements were observed in cognitive defusion and mindfulness awareness abilities. Conclusion: Cognitive defusion techniques positively affect schizophrenia clients who struggle with persistent delusional beliefs. This underscores the importance of further investigating this approach to decrease the intensity of delusions as part of a comprehensive therapeutic intervention. Psychiatric nurses must receive training in "cognitive defusion skills" to aid schizophrenia clients in becoming more aware of their emotions and modifying their coping strategies for delusional beliefs. On August 3, 2023, the research was retrospectively registered under the reference number NCT05759091 as a randomized clinical trial. Clinical trial registration: https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05759091, identifier NCT05759091. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundApplying cognitive defusion techniques to enduring psychotic symptoms, such as delusions, presents both a challenge and a promising opportunity for psychiatric nurses to manage delusions among schizophrenia clients.ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the impact of cognitive defusion techniques on psychological flexibility, mindful awareness, cognitive fusion, and the believability of delusions in schizophrenia clients.MethodologyThis study used a single-blind, parallel-arm Randomized Controlled Trial design. Over five weeks, 70 clients with schizophrenia were randomized to either the cognitive defusion intervention group (n = 35) or the control group (n = 35).FindingsThe participants showed significant reductions in the believability of delusions, cognitive fusion, and psychological inflexibility immediately after the intervention and at follow-up. Notable enhancements were observed in cognitive defusion and mindfulness awareness abilities.ConclusionCognitive defusion techniques positively affect schizophrenia clients who struggle with persistent delusional beliefs. This underscores the importance of further investigating this approach to decrease the intensity of delusions as part of a comprehensive therapeutic intervention. Psychiatric nurses must receive training in “cognitive defusion skills” to aid schizophrenia clients in becoming more aware of their emotions and modifying their coping strategies for delusional beliefs. On August 3, 2023, the research was retrospectively registered under the reference number NCT05759091 as a randomized clinical trial.Clinical trial registrationhttps://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05759091, identifier NCT05759091.

Background: There is growing evidence for the use of acceptance-commitment therapy (ACT) for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, few fully implemented ACT have been conducted on the neural mechanisms underlying its effect on OCD. Thus, this study aimed to elucidate the neural correlates of ACT in patients with OCD using task-based and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Methods: Patients with OCD were randomly assigned to the ACT (n = 21) or the wait-list control group (n = 21). An 8-week group-format ACT program was provided to the ACT group. All participants underwent an fMRI scan and psychological measurements before and after 8 weeks. Results: Patients with OCD showed significantly increased activation in the bilateral insula and superior temporal gyri (STG), induced by the thought-action fusion task after ACT intervention. Further psycho-physiological interaction analyses with these regions as seeds revealed that the left insular–left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) connectivity was strengthened in the ACT group after treatment. Increased resting-state functional connectivity was also found in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), precuneus, and lingual gyrus after ACT intervention Most of these regions showed significant correlations with ACT process measures while only the right insula was correlated with the obsessive-compulsive symptom measure. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the therapeutic effect of ACT on OCD may involve the salience and interoception processes (i.e. insula), multisensory integration (i.e. STG), language (i.e. IFG), and self-referential processes (i.e. PCC and precuneus). These areas or their interactions could be important for understanding how ACT works psychologically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts at social change have long been central to the psychological study of men and masculinities (PSMM) as a field. However, these efforts have been hampered by the absence of a coherent, unifying philosophical framework linking science to social practice or explicitly articulated guiding values. In this article, we argue that current social change efforts in PSMM can be characterized as attempts to either reconstruct or deconstruct masculinities. Reconstruction consists of attempts to modify or create more prosocial meanings of masculinities. Deconstruction, in contrast, consists of attempts to reduce or attenuate the psychological impact of masculinities on human behavior. We describe their practical application and review research support for each approach—including relevant recent clinical science research on cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion. We then present functional contextualism as a coherent philosophy linking science to social practice that can be used by researchers and clinicians to evaluate when to pursue reconstructionist and/or deconstructionist approaches. We provide psychotherapy and public health campaign case examples to illustrate how researchers and clinicians might use a functional contextualist framework to evaluate the merits of reconstructionist and deconstructionist approaches, before closing by suggesting directions for future research. Public Significance Statement: This article describes two different approaches to science and practice focused on masculinities: efforts to reconstruct masculinities and efforts to deconstruct masculinities. The authors argue that the utility of these approaches is context-dependent and requires clarifying philosophical assumptions and guiding values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the intermediary role of rumination in the relationship between childhood traumas in young adults and cognitive defusion, psychological acceptance, and suppression which is one of the emotion regulation strategies. In the quantitative stage of the study formed according to the explanatory sequential design, the intermediary role of rumination by using a structural equation model while in the qualitative stage, the intermediary role of rumination was analyzed through interviews using the interpretive phenomenology design. Personal Information Form, Childhood Trauma Scale, Short Form Ruminative Response Scale, Acceptance and Action Form II, Drexel Defusion Scale, and Emotion Regulation Scale were used in the research. At the end of the research, it was determined that childhood traumas have a negative effect on cognitive defusion and acceptance, while they have a positive effect on suppression. It was seen that rumination has a partial intermediary role in the relationship of childhood traumas with cognitive defusion, acceptance, and suppression. As a result of the qualitative analysis, twelve themes such as "Constantly thinking about the past, not being able to move away from childhood traumas, not being able to forgive their parents, inability to get rid of negative thoughts, living in the past, moving away from a value-driven life, false expression of emotion, suppression of emotions, emotions reflected in behavior, coping with negative emotions and desired emotion regulation" emerged concerning participants' experiences of cognitive defusion, acceptance, and suppression. Although one of the purposes of using AAQ-II in the study was to support discussions about the scale via qualitative results, this was a limitation for the study. Therefore, although a high rate was obtained, it is not possible to infer that childhood traumas and rumination can explain acceptance behaviors. For this, much more quantitative and qualitative studies are needed. Other qualitative research findings are thought to support quantitative research findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cognitive defusion is an outcome, not a procedure or a process. • Cognitive defusion can be achieved through different behavioral processes. • Possible processes include selective attention and spatial distancing. • Other relevant processes involve relational coherence, reinforcement and extinction. Cognitive defusion is among the main components of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a contextual behavioral approach to psychotherapy. Defusion serves as a middle-level term, and, as such, may be useful for applying and disseminating behavior science, despite its lower precision. However, some authors argue that for middle-level terms in psychotherapy to be useful to clinicians, they need to be clearly linked to basic behavioral concepts, with higher precision; and that this is not currently the case with defusion. Our objective is to increase the pragmatic utility of the concept of "cognitive defusion" by providing a more nuanced, multifaceted and process-based definition of the term. In order to do this, we surveyed the ACT literature regarding defusion and critically examined it through the lens of conceptual analysis. This culminated in a revised and updated conceptualization of defusion in terms of its relationship to basic behavioral concepts, in which defusion is an outcome that may be achieved through different processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A critical appraisal of ACT is covered in this special section. • Limitations in assessment theory adherence discussed. • A call for methodological improvements is made. There is a voluminous and expanding literature regarding ACT, from descriptions of its theory to its stated roots in relational frame theory, the particulars of its therapy techniques and exercises, favored metaphors, randomized controlled trials, to many self-help books for a wide variety of problems. The therapy is widely marketed through workshops and many self-help books. ACT is associated with its own journal and its own professional organization, the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS). This literature is interpreted by ACT proponents as demonstrating the causal efficacy of ACT for a wide range of problems and, at times, even being superior to treatment as usual, which are often more traditional forms of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). This special section contains a series of 6 papers examining these claims. Correctly understanding and evaluating the claims of ACT proponents is warranted because these can have direct implications for treatment decisions by therapists attempting to deliver the most effective treatment for their clients' problems. The papers, individually and as a whole, urge considerable caution, particularly because much of its research has involved serious measurement problems, problematic research designs, and a unique and problematic conceptualization and perhaps the practice of values and ethics. These papers call for methodological improvements and a commitment to more traditional values associated with science so that ACT can be more fairly evaluated to accurately understand its assets and limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-development is always related to self-confidence. Self-confidence is important because it influences individual success. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the application of group guidance services with cognitive defusion techniques to increase student confidence. The research design used is Quasy Experiment with pre-post-test control group design. In this design, the experimental group received treatment and the control group did not receive treatment. The sample was taken 30 students and then divided into two groups, namely 15 students into the experimental group and 15 other students into the control group. Data collection was taken through a structured questionnaire given to students to measure the level of self-confidence. The instrument applied is the self-confidence scale. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel software and SPSS Version 25. The analysis applied hypothesis testing (t test). The results of the analysis obtained information, t P

Background: One of the most severe problems that patients with Hypertension (HPN) face are lack of medication adherence, which is influenced by psychological factors. Thus, the current survey sought to compare medication beliefs, cognitive defusion and valued living in hypertensive patients with varying medication adherence.Methods: A cross-sectional study with 162 HPN patients from three clinics at Isfahan University of Medical Sciences was conducted in 2019. Participants completed the BMQ (Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire), MMAS (Morisky Medication Adherence Scale), CFQ (Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire), and VLQ (Valued Living Questionnaire). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results: Only 22.2% of patients scored high in medication adherence (MA). MA levels increased with age in a significant correlation (p=0.03). ANOVA results revealed that the three MA levels (low, medium, and high) had substantial differences in both VLQ subscales (importance of person-valued living and allotted time for values; p=0.002 and p=0.023). However, no significant differences in MA levels were found in the CFQ (cognitive defusion and cognitive fusion) and BMQ subscales (specific necessity, specific concern, general overuse, and general harm).Conclusions: This study discovered that a higher MA is associated with increasing age. In addition, patients with HPN who value living and devote more time to their values have higher MA.

In recent years, the study of neuropsychology has played a significant role in explaining the symptoms of borderline personality disorder. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to model the relationship between cognitive defusion and problem-solving, considering the mediating role of metacognitive awareness in individuals with borderline personality disorder. The population of this research included all individuals with borderline personality disorder in Kurdistan province, aged between 18 and 60 years, during 2020 and 2021. A purposive sampling method was employed, following the "Kline" rule, and a total of 234 individuals were selected from this population. The participants completed the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire by Gillanders et al. (2014), the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory by Schraw and Dennison (1994), and the Social Problem Solving Inventory by D'Zurilla and Nezu (2002). The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling in Amos-22 software. The results confirmed the mediating role of metacognitive awareness in the relationship between cognitive defusion and problem-solving abilities in individuals with borderline personality disorder. Specifically, cognitive defusion directly and positively influences problem-solving skills (p < 0.01, β=0.47), and metacognitive awareness also directly and positively affects problem-solving skills (p < 0.01, β=0.19). Additionally, cognitive defusion indirectly affects problem-solving skills by influencing metacognitive awareness (p < 0.05, β=0.07). These results highlight the significance of both cognitive defusion and metacognitive awareness in predicting and improving problem-solving abilities in individuals with borderline personality disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autistic adults are at risk of stress-related psychiatric disorders and reduced life quality due to social, cognitive, and perceptual challenges. Mental health interventions adapted to autistic adults are scarce. Acceptance and commitment therapy has preliminarily indicated health benefits in autistic adults, although it has not been robustly evaluated. Overall, 39 adults (21 males; 21–72 years) with autism spectrum disorder and normal intellectual ability (IQ M = 108.5; SD = 13.5) were randomized to 14 weeks of adapted acceptance and commitment therapy group treatment (NeuroACT) or treatment as usual. The intervention was feasible. Perceived stress and quality of life (primary outcomes), alongside psychological inflexibility, cognitive fusion, cognitive and behavioral avoidance, and autistic mannerism were statistically significantly improved in NeuroACT compared with treatment as usual (d = 0.70–0.90). Clinically significant changes in perceived stress and quality of life were in favor of NeuroACT. Between-group altered depression, anxiety, sleep problems, one quality of life measure, functional impairment, social aspects of autism, and executive difficulties were statistically non-significant. Dropout was slightly higher in NeuroACT. NeuroACT may be a promising treatment for autistic adults with co-existing stress and reduced quality of life. More extensive studies are warranted to evaluate NeuroACT further. Autistic adults are often stressed and feel depressed or anxious. However, mental health programs that are suited for autistic adults are few. Acceptance and commitment therapy is a psychotherapy method that seems to help people feel better, although not thoroughly evaluated in autistic individuals. In this study, 20 autistic adults had 14 weeks of acceptance and commitment therapy group treatment suited for autism (NeuroACT), while 19 autistic adults had ordinary care. The acceptance and commitment therapy group treatment program seemed logical and reasonable to the participants. Also, when comparing the participants in the NeuroACT group with those in the ordinary care group, the NeuroACT participants reported less stress and higher quality of life. Compared to the ordinary care group, they could also manage distressing thoughts better, perceived themselves as more flexible, and did not avoid stressful situations as much as before. However, there was no significant difference between the groups in depression, anxiety, sleep problems, social aspects of autism, everyday functioning, or executive challenges. Slightly more NeuroACT participants did not finish the treatment than ordinary care participants. In conclusion, the NeuroACT program may be a treatment for autistic adults who feel stressed and have reduced quality of life. More studies are needed to see how helpful the NeuroACT program is for autistic adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the constituent processes of psychological flexibility (contact with the present moment, acceptance, cognitive defusion, self-as-context, value clarification, and committed action) in supporting physical activity (PA) maintenance. A total of 9 physically active participants were interviewed using the Scanlan collaborative interview method. Participants were asked to discuss their strategies for maintaining PA, before being asked whether the 6 psychological flexibility processes played a role in their PA behavior. Data were analyzed using a combination of deductive and inductive thematic analyses. Acceptance, cognitive defusion, value clarification, and committed action played a role in participants' experiences of maintaining PA. Contact with the present moment and self-as-context were reported to be relatively unimportant to participants' PA maintenance. Cultivating acceptance of PA-related discomfort, defusion from unhelpful thoughts, clarifying the value of PA, and encouraging commitment to PA would likely benefit individuals' efforts to maintain PA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Aim: Nursing is one of the most important professions providing healthcare services. On the front line of health care, they face many moral dilemmas, which in turn can affect their cognitive performance. Therefore, the purpose of the current research was to determine the effectiveness of commitment and acceptance therapy in reducing moral distress and increasing cognitive defusion of nurses at Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam. Ethical Considerations: The ethical principles and rules in the research were: Obtaining permission and code of ethics from Payame Noor University's ethics committee, explaining research objectives to research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining privacy, confidentiality of data, providing the possibility to leave the research at any stage of implementation. Methods: The research method was semi-experimental with a pre-test and post-test design. The statistical sample consisted of 40 nurses working in Imam Khomeini Hospital in Ilam city in 2022, who were randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. In order to collect data, moral distress questionnaires (Corley et al., 2001) and The Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (Gillanders, 2010) were used. Commitment and acceptance-based therapy training sessions were conducted in eight 90-minute sessions weekly, while the control group did not receive any intervention. After recording and processing in SPSS-24 software, the data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance statistical test. Results: The results showed that treatment based on commitment and acceptance has a significant effect on nurses' moral distress and cognitive fusion in the post test stage (p<0.05). The Eta coefficient for moral distress and increasing cognitive defusion were 0.73 and 0.69, respectively. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the interventions of this study are effective in reducing moral distress and cognitive fusion in nurses. As a result, the use of this treatment program is suggested by mental health professionals and clinicians to reduce moral dilemmas and cognitive fusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has become one of the most promising developments in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Although cumulative evidence supporting the efficacy of individual ACT as a therapeutic intervention for OCD has been reported, research on the efficacy of group ACT (GACT) remains insufficient. In this study, 72 patients with OCD were randomly assigned equally to the GACT intervention and wait-list control (WLC) groups, and an 8-week program was administered to the GACT group. The symptoms and process measures of the GACT group (N = 34) were compared with those of the WLC group (N = 31) at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and the 8-week follow-up. The Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale scores indicated that GACT had a moderate and significant impact on reducing obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms over the treatment period. This continued through to the 8-week follow-up, which resulted in a 39.3% reduction in symptoms, whereas the WLC group did not show any improvement. Process measures, such as psychological flexibility and cognitive fusion, showed significant improvements only in the GACT group. Additionally, changes in cognitive fusion scores were significantly associated with changes in the OC symptoms. These findings support the efficacy of GACT as a treatment for OCD particularly by reducing OC symptoms through cognitive defusion. Our results provide crucial preliminary findings that can serve as a cornerstone for verifying the effectiveness of GACT in OCD treatment. • Research on the efficacy of group ACT for OCD is still insufficient. • Group ACT had a moderate impact on reducing OC symptoms over the treatment period. • Such improvements continued through the 8-week follow-up. • Change in cognitive fusion had a significant association with the change in OC symptoms. • These findings may support the efficacy of group-based ACT as a treatment for OCD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: One of the most severe problems that patients with Hypertension (HPN) face are lack of medication adherence, which is influenced by psychological factors. Thus, the current survey sought to compare medication beliefs, cognitive defusion and valued living in hypertensive patients with varying medication adherence. METHODS: A cross-sectional study with 162 HPN patients from three clinics at Isfahan University of Medical Sciences was conducted in 2019. Participants completed the BMQ (Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire), MMAS (Morisky Medication Adherence Scale), CFQ (Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire), and VLQ (Valued Living Questionnaire). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). RESULTS: Only 22.2% of patients scored high in medication adherence (MA). MA levels increased with age in a significant correlation (p=0.03). ANOVA results revealed that the three MA levels (low, medium, and high) had substantial differences in both VLQ subscales (importance of person-valued living and allotted time for values; p=0.002 and p=0.023). However, no significant differences in MA levels were found in the CFQ (cognitive defusion and cognitive fusion) and BMQ subscales (specific necessity, specific concern, general overuse, and general harm). CONCLUSIONS: This study discovered that a higher MA is associated with increasing age. In addition, patients with HPN who value living and devote more time to their values have higher MA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of International Journal of Eurasian Education & Culture is the property of Ayse Burcu Ulusoy and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Conversational agents or chatbots are a novel, highly accessible, and low-resource method of psychological intervention delivery. The present research aims to compare two brief chatbot interventions that delivered cognitive restructuring and defusion interventions, respectively. It was hypothesized that a defusion chatbot would lead to reduced cognitive fusion and decreased thought believability relative to cognitive restructuring and a nonactive control. Participants (N = 223; M age of 28.01 [SD = 10.29]; 47 identified as male, 174 as female, and 2 as nonbinary) were randomized into one of three conditions (defusion, restructuring, control), engaged for 5 days completing thought and mood measures pre- and postintervention. Sixty-two participants (M age of 25.98; SD = 8.647 years) completed measures again at time 2 (49 identified as female, 12 as male, and 1 as nonbinary). No statistically significant differences were observed among groups on believability of thoughts (F[2, 25] =.79, p =.47, ηp2 =.06), negativity of thoughts (F[2,25] = 1.49, p =.25, η 2 =.11), discomfort associated with thoughts (F[2, 25] =.48, p =.62, ηp2 =.04), and willingness (F[2, 25] = 3.00, p =.07, ηp2 =.19) to have negative self-referential thoughts. Moreover, substantial attrition of 72% was observed. Acceptability and usability of the chatbots employed are discussed as contributing toward the limited effectiveness of interventions and elevated attrition. Various recommendations are presented to support researchers and clinicians in developing engaging and effective chatbots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the roles of psychological inflexibility, rumination, perfectionism cognitions, cognitive defusion, and self-forgiveness in predicting cognitive test anxiety among a sample of 715 university students (351 females, 364 males). The Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale-Revised, Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II, Ruminative Response Scale, Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, Drexel Defusion Scale, State Self-Forgiveness Scale, and Demographic Information Form were used as data collection instruments. The results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis revealed that psychological inflexibility, rumination, perfectionism cognitions, and cognitive defusion were significant predictors of cognitive test anxiety, whereas self-forgiveness made no significant contribution to the model. The hypothesized model overall accounted for 31% of the variance in cognitive test anxiety scores, with psychological inflexibility explaining 23% of the variance in the first model, and the remaining variables accounting for an additional 8% of the variance. The strongest contribution to cognitive test anxiety was psychological inflexibility, followed by cognitive defusion, rumination and perfectionism cognitions. While psychological inflexibility, rumination, and perfectionism cognitions were found to correlate with cognitive test anxiety positively, cognitive defusion was negatively associated with cognitive test anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parallels between the ancient Hellenistic philosophies of the Stoics and Epicureans, on the one hand, and modern cognitive psychotherapy, on the other, are well known and a topic of current discussion. The present article argues that there are also important parallels between Pyrrhonism, the third of the major Hellenistic philosophies, and the currently state-of-the-art "3rd wave" cognitive-behavioral therapies in general, and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) in particular. This provides a crucial insight into Pyrrhonism: understanding Sextus' term adoxastos using the technical ACT term 'defusion' illuminates the psychological condition of the Pyrrhonist and explains why the apraxia objection against Pyrrhonism is misguided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Understanding how cognitive processes are naturally used by untrained individuals in the moment to cope with difficult thoughts may help inform effective and efficient interventions. Methods: This study investigated self-reported naturalistic use of two evidence-based processes, cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion, in an untrained, predominantly White female college student sample (n = 194) through ecological momentary assessments over seven days. Results: Cognitive restructuring and defusion had a large positive relationship. Both processes were also positively associated with increased momentary use of suppression and distraction. Only momentary defusion was associated with decreased rumination and negative affect at the same timepoint, while both defusion and restructuring were associated with positive affect and increased values progress at the same timepoint. Momentary defusion predicted later values progress, but only among those with low distress. Conclusions: Overall, results suggest that both cognitive restructuring and cognitive defusion are used in a nonclinical, untrained population, that both processes are overall beneficial when used in the moment, and that defusion may be particularly relevant to certain aims such as lower rumination or values progress across time points. Replication among clinical and more diverse populations is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elaborated intrusion theory of desire proposes that craving is a cognitive motivational process involving intrusive thoughts. Changing the way we react to them, cognitive defusion (CD), should limit thought elaboration and craving. We induced chocolate craving in female chocolate cravers before CD (Study 1). A decrease in craving measured by a single-item scale, Visual Analogical Scale (VAS; p <.001, ηp2 =.449) and as a state, State Food Craving Questionnaire (FCQ-S; p =.029, ηp2 =.106) were found in the experimental group, while similar results were also found in group control. The reduction in craving (VAS) in group CD correlated negatively with chocolate consumption on a bogus taste test (r = –.439, p =.036), while the correlation was positive in the case of group control (r =.429, p =.047). Food craving as a trait, measured by the Trait Food Craving Questionnaire (FCQ-T), showed negative correlations with measures of CD and mindfulness skills (lowest r = –.313, p =.018). In Study 2 participants made use of a smartphone application implementing the CD procedure in real contexts whenever they experienced food craving. A corresponding decline in self-reported craving was found, as well as in consumption of the craved food (indulgence) compared with the control condition. Our findings indicate that CD may be a promising intervention for tackling the elaboration of intrusive thoughts and eating behavior in young female food cravers, both in a controlled laboratory environment after a cue-food exposure craving induction procedure, as well as responding to naturally occurring food cravings in real-life settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

La eficacia demostrada de algunos procedimientos terapéuticos no siempre va seguida de una explicación coherente de su funcionalidad. En este artículo nos proponemos revisar tres de las estrategias terapéuticas más utilizadas en la actualidad: reestructuración cognitiva, defusión cognitiva y mindfulness, ofreciendo una explicación alternativa a las terapias tradicionales, partiendo de su definición como mayoritariamente verbales. La consideración de la cognición como una conducta cualitativamente diferente a cualquier otra conducta humana implica caer en una forma de pensar dualista que poco tiene que ofrecer al desarrollo científico de la psicología. Nuestra propuesta adopta un enfoque monista, basado en procesos de aprendizaje respondiente y operante, dentro de una tradición de análisis conductual. Se considera que las técnicas citadas operan sobre el comportamiento privado pero no difieren ontológicamente del público y, por tanto, están sujetas a contingencias en el proceso terapéutico de forma similar a cualquier otro comportamiento.

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Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is used increasingly for individuals with psychological distress following acquired brain injury (ABI) in different countries. However, questionnaires measuring ACT-processes are often not validated for this patient group and need cross-cultural validation. This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire for Acquired Brain Injury (AAQ-ABI; measuring psychological flexibility related to thoughts and feelings about ABI) and the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ-7; measuring cognitive defusion). Score distribution, reliability, and convergent validity of the AAQ-ABI and the CFQ-7 were examined in Dutch individuals with ABI. Seventy-three patients with ABI were included. The AAQ-ABI showed good reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.87) and the CFQ-7 excellent reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.97). Both did not show a floor or ceiling effect, nor a skewed distribution. There were strong to moderate correlations between the questionnaires and measures of psychological flexibility, mood, quality of life, and value-driven behavior (AAQ-ABI: r = −0.70–0.81; CFQ-7 = −0.67–0.84). Inter-item total correlations indicate that the questions within each questionnaire measured the same construct (AAQ-ABI: r = 0.40–0.78; CFQ-7: r = 0.84–0.93). The current study shows that the Dutch AAQ-ABI and CFQ-7 have acceptable to good psychometric properties when measuring psychological flexibility and cognitive defusion in patients with ABI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The current study aimed to examine the mediation effects of experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, decentering, and nonattachment on the paths from mindfulness to athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing among elite athletes. Methods: Chinese elite athletes (n = 515; 225 females) were recruited from three provincial sports centers representing 22 sports. The athletes completed self-reported measures of mindfulness, experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, decentering, and nonattachment, athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing. Path analyses were conducted to test the mediation effects from mindfulness to athlete burnout, subjective well-being, and flourishing. Results: Path analyses revealed that the effect from mindfulness to athlete burnout was mediated by experiential acceptance, cognitive defusion, and nonattachment, but not decentering. The effect from mindfulness to subjective well-being was mediated by decentering, cognitive defusion, and nonattachment, but not experiential acceptance. The effect from mindfulness to flourishing was mediated by decentering and nonattachment, but not experiential acceptance and cognitive defusion. Conclusion: Findings from this study provided empirical support for the changing mechanisms regarding how mindfulness leads to adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, which can inform future mindfulness-based interventions for elite athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perspective-taking exercises are used in a range of therapies, such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Cognitive Therapy (CT), Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) and Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT). Perspective-taking has been theorised in ACT to foster cognitive defusion, self-compassion and a sense of self as distinct from and containing self-related negative thoughts and feelings. To date, few experimental studies have investigated the impact of typical perspective-taking exercises. This study sought to investigate whether perspective-taking exercises were able to decrease state cognitive fusion and emotional discomfort and increase state self-compassion associated with a self-related, negative thought (SRNT). It also sought to investigate whether there are differences in effects between temporal ('now' vs 'then') and interpersonal ('self' vs 'other') perspective-taking and between giving and receiving perspectives. A convenience sample of non-clinical participants (n = 61) generated a SRNT and then rated levels of emotional discomfort, state cognitive fusion and state self-compassion in relation to the thought. Participants were then guided through three within-participant conditions: a control procedure, a giving perspective and a receiving perspective condition. Participants were allocated to one of two groups: temporal perspective-taking or interpersonal perspective-taking. Mixed ANOVAs showed that both interpersonal and temporal exercises significantly reduced emotional discomfort and cognitive fusion and increased self-compassion associated with a SRNT. The effects of giving or receiving perspective differed between interpersonal and temporal groups. These results provide experimental evidence that perspective-taking is a psychologically beneficial process, therefore supporting the existing use of perspective-taking exercises in clinical practice. • Perspective-taking is regularly used by clinicians, but it lacks experimental study. • The effect of perspective-taking on self-related negative thoughts was measured. • Perspective-taking reduced discomfort and cognitive fusion and increased compassion. • Implications are discussed at both mid-level and RFT-level analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As one of the founding principles of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), cognitive defusion is a contextual control of language, but it is not clear which behavioural process would allow such defusion. Two experiments are presented which analyse that process using a word repetition exercise. Method: Experiment 1 was performed with 30 randomised participants, using a factorial between-groups (4×2) with repeated measures design: Group 1 = milk-milk-milk exercise; 2 = emotional word repetition; 3 = milk-to-emotional word shaping; and 4 = control without intervention. Questionnaires were applied on thoughts, emotional regulation, and experiential avoidance, in addition to the evaluation of 20 images suggesting emotions. In Experiment 2, 78 participants were randomised using the same 4×2 design, and also 60 images with a proven emotional reactivity were used. Results: Experiment 1 did not show changes in any of the variables, nor a decrease in emotional assessment, which should occur according to the theory behind ACT. In Experiment 2, no significant changes between the groups and no prepost changes appeared, except in latency time. Conclusions: The lack of replication of the defusion process is discussed, along with the mixed results of other studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive defusion is one of the components of psychological flexibility in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. The purpose of this study was to translate the Drexel Defusion Scale (DDS) into Turkish and test its psychometric properties. This two-phase study was carried out with two groups of participants. The first phase, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) included 370 university students (218 female, 152 male). The second phase, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and divergent validity consisted of 715 university students (351 female, 364 male). The DDS measures the ability to achieve a distance from inner experiences like thoughts and feelings, and it consists of 10 scenarios on a six-point Likert-scale ranging from 0 (Not at all) to 5 (Very much). The DDS has a unidimentional factor structure. The CFA results confirmed the one-factor structure of Turkish DDS (T-DDS). The T-DDS also yielded satisfactory (a > .80) internal consistency and test-retest reliability (a = .81). Thus, findings revealed satisfactory reliability and validity evidence for the TDDS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral assimilation to age stereotypes (BAAS) is referred to as the behavioral phenomenon of impaired task performance among older adults that is consistent with negative aging-related stereotypes. This laboratory study evaluated the inoculating effect of a contextual behavioral science (CBS)-informed intervention on a cognitive performance task (i.e., Block Design) among Japanese older adults who were primed with a negative aging-related stereotype. Fifty-nine older adult participants were randomly assigned to either the CBS-informed intervention group (n = 30) or attention-placebo control group (n = 29). The CBS-informed intervention group completed a self-as-observer exercise and rapid word repetition defusion task, whereas the attention-placebo control group received general conversation with the experimenter. The CBS-informed group showed significantly greater scores on the Block Design task than the attention-placebo control group. Fusion with a conceptualized self did not moderate the intervention effect. Limitations and implications of results are discussed. • The topic of the study is behavioral assimilation to age stereotypes (BAAS) in Japanese older adults. • This experiment examined the inoculating effect of CBS-informed intervention on BAAS. • BAAS was measured by the block design task following presentation of negative age stereotypes. • The CBS-informed intervention attenuated BAAS more so than the attention-placebo control condition. • Implications of these findings will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Men's psychological well-being has in recent decades garnered increasing attention in research, clinical practice, and larger society. Dewey's insightful case study provides an occasion for reflecting on the multiple conceptual lenses that can be used to understand and work with masculinity in psychotherapy. In this commentary, we discuss how these conceptualizations of masculinity facilitate different approaches to psychotherapy at the levels of treatment planning and intervention. We offer our own approach to masculine identity work, noting specific points of contrast with the approach illustrated by Dewey. Finally, we critically explore the clinical and societal implications of concepts like "toxic masculinity" and "healthy masculinity" in light of social justice pursuits for gender equality. Throughout, we emphasize the importance for clinicians to make deliberate choices about how masculinity is conceptualized and to consider the pragmatic consequences of these conceptual choices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New wave therapies such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy aim to cultivate people's psychological flexibility in order for them to live a satisfying life. Psychological flexibility has also a role in promoting mental health, which may mediate the relationship with life satisfaction. The aim of this study was to determine whether mental health mediates the effect of psychological flexibility on life satisfaction. A convenience sample of 140 adults (32 males, M = 36.50 years, SD = 12.22; 107 females, M = 38.46 years, SD = 12.81; and a 45-year-old person of unknown gender) completed an online questionnaire assessing psychological flexibility, mental health and life satisfaction. Three of the four hypothesized components of psychological flexibility (experiential acceptance, cognitive alternatives and cognitive control) contributed to the latent construct of psychological flexibility, but cognitive defusion failed to contribute. Psychological flexibility had a direct, positive effect on life satisfaction and the hypothesis that mental health would mediate this relationship was supported. The results suggest that psychological flexibility is important for one's mental health and that both are integral to life satisfaction. The results also support a continued focus on third-wave therapies in cultivating psychological flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive defusion may enhance healthy coping with negative self-referential thoughts amongst college students. However, research is needed to examine how to effectively introduce and teach defusion to this population. The current pilot study tested the usability of and satisfaction with the D-FUSE program, a single-session, web-based program for a mixed sample of undergraduates and its effectiveness in producing improvements in cognitive defusion and self-criticism. In an undergraduate sample (N = 141), the D-FUSE program was found to be usable and satisfactory. Program engagement rendered significant reductions in the believability of and emotional discomfort produced by negative self-referential thoughts. Further improvements to program development and administration are considered. • Development of a satisfactory and usable web-based cognitive defusion program. • Effective defusion web program targeting college students' self-critical thoughts. • Reductions in believability and emotional discomfort of self-critical thoughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anxiety is highly prevalent in pre‐adolescent children. Distorted cognitions are characteristic for dysfunctional levels of anxiety. However, applying cognitive elements in pre‐adolescent children cannot be fully ascertained, as it is not until adolescence before children can apply logical and abstract reasoning in a sophisticated manner. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) both target distorted cognitions. Whereas CBT encourages children to change the content of negative cognitions by applying cognitive restructuring, ACT stimulates youth to have a more accepting attitude towards these thoughts by applying cognitive defusion. The current study examined the efficacy of applying cognitive elements and compared the cognitive elements of CBT and ACT in pre‐adolescent children. We included no behavioural elements to specifically study the developmental appropriateness of the cognitive elements in this age group. Highly anxious children, aged 8–12 years were randomised to a 30‐minute cognitive restructuring (n = 21) or cognitive defusion intervention (n = 22). Subjective fear of the dark levels, behavioural darkness toleration, and comprehension and fun associated with the interventions were assessed. Both interventions had a significantly positive impact on children's fear of the dark. Cognitive restructuring led to more favourable results on subjective fear than cognitive defusion, no differences were found for darkness toleration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative thoughts are experienced by as many as 80–99% of the population. These thoughts are associated with a variety of negative consequences, including negative mood, decreased task performance and the development of psychopathology. One technique employed in contextual behavioral therapies to help cope with negative thoughts is cognitive defusion. Cognitive defusion techniques undermine potential negative effects of thinking by teaching clients to get some distance from their thoughts. Virtual reality (VR) is the computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional environment that users can interact in. VR is of increasing interest to applied psychologists due to its potential for exposure learning. One area where VR may be effective is helping people to cope with negative thoughts. The current study examined the impact of a VR task as a cognitive defusion technique on participants' relationship with a negative self-referential thought (e.g., "I am a failure"). Thirty participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions (i.e., defusion VR and control VR). Participants were tested pre- and post-VR task on a state measure of cognitive defusion and ratings of their self-referential negative thought. The results indicated that a defusion VR task facilitates the management of negative thoughts and leads to an increase in state defusion. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the use of VR techniques in dealing with negative thoughts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a contextual-behavioral approach to psychotherapy and other behavioral health concerns that has progressively attracted attention from both researchers and clinicians. ACT’s psychological flexibility model relies on middle-level terms that, despite being less precise than behavioral principles, are seen as being valuable for teaching and practicing ACT. One such term is cognitive defusion, which refers to the reduction of stimulus function transformation that occurs through verbal relations. In other words, defusion aims to minimize the influence of verbal relations, such as thoughts, on behavior, when doing so leads to adaptive behavior and valued living. Recently, some authors have stressed the importance of functionally defining middle-level terms, establishing clear links between the concept and basic behavioral processes. This article begins this endeavor by analyzing these links with respect to cognitive defusion. First, we briefly contextualize ACT’s theoretical roots. Second, we present cognitive defusion as a therapeutic intervention, reviewing its objectives, procedures, outcomes, and hypothesized processes as stated in the relevant literature. Third, the outlined process of change is critically examined, leading to a new conceptualization of cognitive defusion. Finally, the conceptual, clinical, and research implications of this new conceptualization are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared the effects of cognitive defusion and thought distraction on fear of negative evaluation, dysfunctional attitude, and negative emotions (specifically, anxiety and depression). Eighty-one Korean college students with social anxiety participated in this study. They were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Cognitive Defusion (CD), Thought Distraction (TD), or Control. Using pre-test scores as the covariate, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) compared post-test scores of the three conditions. After the intervention of each condition, the participants assigned to the CD condition showed significantly lower levels of fear of negative evaluation and dysfunctional attitude than the TD condition. The CD and TD interventions did not show significant differences in anxiety and depression levels; however, both interventions turned out to be significantly effective compared to the Control condition. These findings suggest that cognitive defusion may be a more effective strategy than thought distraction for relieving the cognitive aspects of social anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the effect of two craving reduction techniques, namely, cognitive defusion and guided imagery, on naturalistic food cravings. These techniques targeted the intrusion and elaboration stages of the craving process, respectively (Kavanagh, Andrade, & May, 2005). Participants underwent a seven-day baseline period followed by a seven-day intervention period, during which they recorded their food cravings as they occurred using online diaries accessed via smartphone. In the intervention period, participants were randomly assigned to one of cognitive defusion, guided imagery or control conditions. Participants in the cognitive defusion and guided imagery conditions listened to three-minute audio clips containing their respective instructions every time they experienced a food craving, and rated their craving intensity before and after the intervention, while the control participants recorded their cravings as they did in the baseline week. Results showed that both cognitive defusion and guided imagery techniques reduced craving frequency, intensity, the likelihood of consumption following cravings, and craving-related calorie intake, consistent with predictions. These findings show that cognitive defusion and guided imagery are useful for dealing with naturally occurring cravings across a range of foods, and can reduce craving-related consumption in everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]