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Purpose: To examine older adults' perceptions of the link between physical activity (PA) and nutrition to the maintenance of cognitive health. Design and Methods: Forty-two focus groups (FGs) were conducted with 396 ethnically diverse (White, African American, American Indian, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Hispanic) community-dwelling older adults. FGs were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and coded using a constant comparison method. Responses pertaining to PA and nutrition were analyzed. Results: Participants noted a positive link between both PA and dietary practices and brain health, although some participants voiced skepticism regarding diet. Walking was most frequently cited as a recommended PA, but participants did not know the recommended frequency, duration, and intensity. Limiting portion sizes; preparing foods in healthier ways; eating more fish, fruits, vegetables, low-fat foods, and chicken; and eating less red meat and chicken with the skin were associated with brain health. Multiple dietary supplements were also discussed. More racial/ethnic differences were noted for PA than for diet. Implications: Interventions and media campaigns may benefit from explicitly linking PA and dietary habits with brain health and helping older adults understand that cardiovascular risk factors are also dementia risk factors. Emphasizing the total diet (vs. specific nutrients) and providing clear messages regarding the frequency, duration, and intensity of recommended PA would also be useful. Key Words: Cognition, Aging, Physical activity, Exercise, Nutrition, Perceptions, Qualitative research

Purpose: This cross-sectional study takes a unique look at the association between patterns of walking and cognitive functioning by examining whether older adults with mild cognitive impairment differ in terms of the community settings where they walk and the frequency, intensity, or duration of walking. Design and Methods: The sample was based on interviews with 884 adults aged 65 years and older, residing in 4 locations across the United States: Alameda County, California; Cook County, Illinois; Allegheny County, Pennsylvania; and Durham/ Wake Counties, North Carolina. Cognitive function was assessed using a modified Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Mental Alternation Test (MAT). Multiple linear regressions were conducted between self-reported walking activities and cognitive measures, controlling for psychosocial, demographic, health status, functional performance, and neighborhood characteristics. Results: The community setting where people walk and the intensity of walking in their neighborhood were significantly associated with cognitive status. After controlling for individual and neighborhood characteristics, better MAT scores were significantly associated with brisk walking and walking fewer times per week. Compared with the MMSE, the MAT was more likely to be associated with patterns of walking among older adults. Older adults with lower MAT scores were more likely to walk in indoor shopping malls and less in parks, whereas those with higher cognitive function scores on the MMSE were less likely to walk in indoor gyms. Implications: This investigation provides insight into the extent to which walking is associated with preservation of cognitive health, setting the stage for future longitudinal studies and community-based interventions. Key Words: Cognitive performance, Physical activity, Environmental barriers, Person-environment fit

Purpose: Evidence suggests that physical activity and healthy diets may help to maintain cognitive function, reducing risks of developing Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Using a cross-cultural focus, we describe older adults' awareness about cognitive health, and their ideas about how to inform and motivate others to engage in activities that may maintain brain health. Design and Methods: Nineteen focus groups were conducted in 3 states (California, North Carolina, South Carolina) with 177 adults aged 50 years and older. Six groups were with African Americans (AAs), 4 with Chinese, 3 with Vietnamese, 4 with non-Hispanic Whites, and 2 with American Indians (AIs). A qualitative thematic analysis was conducted. Results: Many participants did not recall reading or hearing about brain health in the media. Participants recommended a multimedia approach to inform others about brain health. Both interpersonal and social/group motivational strategies were suggested. Word of mouth and testimonials were recommended most often by Chinese and Vietnamese. AAs and AIs suggested brain health education at church; AAs, Chinese, and Vietnamese said brain health slogans should be spiritual. Participants' perceived barriers to seeking brain health information included watching too much TV and confusing media information. Implications: Findings on communication strategies for reaching racial/ethnic groups with brain health information will help guide message and intervention development for diverse older adults. Key Words: Cognitive health, Ethnicity, Culture, Mass media, Health communication

In this study, electroencephalography (EEG) was used to examine the relationship between two leading hypotheses of cognitive aging, the inhibitory deficit and the processing speed hypothesis. We show that older adults exhibit a selective deficit in suppressing task-irrelevant information during visual working memory encoding, but only in the early stages of visual processing. Thus, the employment of suppressive mechanisms are not abolished with aging but rather delayed in time, revealing a decline in processing speed that is selective for the inhibition of irrelevant information. EEG spectral analysis of signals from frontal regions suggests that this results from excessive attention to distracting information early in the time course of viewing irrelevant stimuli. Subdividing the older population based on working memory performance revealed that impaired suppression of distracting information early in the visual processing stream is associated with poorer memory of task-relevant information. Thus, these data reconcile two cognitive aging hypotheses by revealing that an interaction of deficits in inhibition and processing speed contributes to age-related cognitive impairment. aging | working memory | inhibitory deficit | distraction | attention

Keywords: cognition; brain-derived neurotrophic factor; elderly 166 Serum Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Is Associated With Cognitive Function in Healthy Older Adults SAGE Publications, Inc.200810.1177/0891988708316860 JohnGunstad PhD Department of Psychology School of [...]

We investigated cognitive training effects on accuracy and number of items attempted in inductive reasoning performance in a sample of 335 older participants (M = 72.78 years) from the Seattle Longitudinal Study. We assessed the impact of individual characteristics, including chronic disease. The reasoning training group showed significantly greater gain in accuracy and number of attempted items than did the comparison group; gain was primarily due to enhanced accuracy. Reasoning training effects involved a complex interaction of gender, prior cognitive status, and chronic disease. Women with prior decline on reasoning but no heart disease showed the greatest accuracy increase. In addition, stable reasoning-trained women with heart disease demonstrated significant accuracy gain. Comorbidity was associated with less change in accuracy. The results support the effectiveness of cognitive training on improving the accuracy of reasoning performance.

Background. Several reports have shown an association between homocysteine, cognitive functioning, and survival among the oldest-old. Two common polymorphisms in the genes coding for methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR 677C>T) and methionine synthase (MTR 2756A>G) have an impact on plasma homocysteine level. Methods. We examined the effect of the MTHFR 677C>T and MTR 2756A>G genotypes on baseline cognitive functioning, cognitive decline over 5 years measured in three assessments, and survival in a population-based cohort of 1581 nonagenarians. Cognitive functioning was assessed by using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and five brief cognitive tests (cognitive composite). Results. There are no differences in MMSE score (p = .83) or in cognitive composite (p = .56) at intake as a function of genotype tested by analysis of variance, whereas sex and social group have a impact on MMSE (p [less than or equal to] .03), and social group on the cognitive composite (p < .01 ). The mean MMSE was lower for women than for men. However, considering the group participating in all three assessments, there were no sex-related differences in MMSE (p = .34). The cognitive decline in the group participating in all three assessments was investigated using regression models for the relationship between cognitive performance and genotype, age, sex, and social group and revealed no significant difference. Furthermore, the MTHFR 677T and MTR 2756A heterozygous and homozygous genotype had no significant impact on survival, with hazard ratios of 1.05 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.93-1.17), 0.93 (95% CI, 0.77-1.14), 1.05 (95% CI, 0.94-1.18), and 0.97 (95% CI, 0.74-1.28). Conclusions. MTHFR and MTR genotypes are not associated with cognitive functioning, cognitive decline, or survival among nonagenarians.

A series of studies performed in our laboratory on aging and its effect on perceptual processing and working memory capacity for visual stimuli are reviewed. Specifically, studies on luminance, colour, motion, texture, and symmetry processing are reported. Furthermore, experiments on the capacity to retain size and spatial frequency information are also discussed. The general conclusion is that there are a number of perceptual abilities that diminish with age. However, the extent of these deficits will depend on the complexity of the neural circuitry involved for processing a given task. This is also true for visual working memory where no evidence of loss due to aging is demonstrated for processing low-level visual information, when individual differences in sensory input are compensated for. It is concluded that perceptual processing deficits due to aging (like working memory) will become evident when the computational load reaches a certain level of complexity (larger or more complex network) even if the tasks remain cognitively simple.

Background. Many men older than 50 years have bioavailable testosterone levels below the reference range for young adult men. The impact of the decreased androgen levels on cognition and health perception has received little attention. Methods. Sixty-seven men (mean age 76 [+ or -] 4 years, range 65-87) with bioavailable testosterone levels below 128 ng/dl (lower limit for adult normal range) were randomized to receive transdermal testosterone (2-2.5 mg patches/d) or placebo patches for 1 year. All men received 500 mg supplemental calcium and 400 IU vitamin D. Outcome measures included sex hormones [testosterone, bioavailable testosterone, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), estradiol, and estrone], cognitive tests (Digit Symbol, Digit Span, Trailmaking A and B), health perception (Medical Outcome Survey Short-form 36 or SF-36), lower extremity muscle strength and power, and calcium intake. Results. Twenty-three men (34%) withdrew from the study; 44 men completed the trial. Bioavailable testosterone levels increased from 93 [+ or -] 34 (SD) to 162 [+ or -] 100 ng/dl (p < .002) at 12 months in the testosterone group (n = 24) while no change occurred in the control group (n = 20). While there was no change in estradiol levels in either group, estrone levels increased in the testosterone group (28 [+ or -] 7 to 32 [+ or -] 9 pg/dl, p = .017). Scores on the Digit Symbol test improved in both the testosterone and placebo groups. Scores on Trailmaking B improved in men treated with testosterone (p < .005), although the changes were not statistically different from the changes seen in the placebo group. Twelve-month scores on Trailmaking B for the entire group were correlated with 12-month testosterone levels (p = .016). Scores for health perception measured by SF-36 did not change significantly, though scores of mental and general health declined in both groups during the 12-month intervention. Twelve-month bioavailable testosterone scores were directly correlated with scores for physical role (p = .022), vitality (p = .036), and the physical composite score (p = .010). Conclusions. Transdermal testosterone treatment in men with low bioavailable testosterone levels does not impair and may improve cognitive function. Treatment did not improve health perception but this may have been due to the side effects of skin irritation suggested by similar reactions in both the testosterone and placebo groups.

This study investigated the relationship of thyroxine (T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) within normal ranges to cognitive performance in very old age. The participants (N = 200) were selected from a population-based study of nondemented persons aged 75 to 96 years (M = 83.9 years). Tasks assessing episodic memory, verbal fluency, visuospatial ability, short-term memory, and perceptual-motor speed were examined. Results indicated that T4 was unrelated to performance. However, TSH was positively related to episodic memory performance, and the effects were independent of the influence of age, level of education, and depressive mood symptoms. There was no reliable effect of TSH on verbal fluency, short-term memory, perceptual-motor speed, or visuospatial functioning. The influence of TSH on episodic memory was interpreted in terms of its potential effects on encoding and consolidation processes.

Brain ageing is associated with a marked decline in mental faculties. One hypothesis postulates that sustained changes in the regulation of intracellular Ca(super 2+) concentration,[Ca(super 2+)](sub i), are the major cause of neuronal degeneration. This 'calcium hypothesis' is supported by demonstrations of the impairment in aged neurones of molecular cascades that regulate [Ca(super 2+)](sub i). However, the number of direct measurements of [Ca(super 2+)](sub i) in senescent neurones is limited, and the hypothesis cannot be regarded as fully confirmed. Furthermore, physiological brain ageing, at least in certain regions, need not necessarily be a degenerative process accompanied by neuronal loss. Pharmacological manipulation of Ca(super 2+) entry has been shown to be effective in increasing some aspects of cognitive function of the aged brain. Therefore, further exploration of Ca(super 2+) homeostasis and signalling might reveal the mechanisms involved in the age-dependent decline in neuronal performance, and might aid the search for new therapeutic treatments.

Individuals with preclinical dementia have begun to decline cognitively, but still perform within normal limits on cognitive testing. As a group, subjects with preclinical dementia have lower scores on neuropsychological tests than their dementia-free counterparts. This study examines the effects of preclinical dementia on estimates of normal cognitive function in the aged using data from a longitudinal study. Individuals with preclinical dementia at baseline were retrospectively identified based on subsequent development of dementia. Age-adjusted norms were computed using baseline data for the Selective Reminding Test and the WAIS verbal and performance scores, both including (conventional norms) and then excluding (robust norms) preclinical cases. The results indicate that by failing to exclude preclinical dementia, conventional normative studies underestimate the mean, overestimate the variance, and overestimate the effect of age on cognitive measures. Methods are discussed for selecting robust elderly samples that are relatively free of contamination by preclinical dementia.

High blood pressure in middle age may be a risk factor for cognitive impairment in old age. Researchers gave cognitive tests to 3,735 Japanese-American men who were part of the Honolulu Heart Program. The men had been born on Oahu between 1900 and 1919 and were followed up regularly. They were grouped according to their recorded systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) when they were middle aged. Men with high blood pressure in midlife were more likely to have intermediate to poor cognitive function compared to those with normal blood pressure. This increased risk of cognitive impairment was seen only in those with high SBP. There was no association between DBP and cognitive impairment. Many of the men with high blood pressure had normal blood pressure in midlife. Treatment for high blood pressure in middle age could reduce the economic impact of dementia in the elderly., Objective.--To assess the long-term relationship of midlife blood pressure levels to late-life cognitive function. Design.--The 4678 surviving cohort members of the prospective Honolulu Heart Program (baseline, 1965-1968) were examined a fourth time in 1991 through 1993 and given a cognitive test. Participants.--The subjects were 3735 Japanese-American men living in Hawaii in the community or in institutions, with an average age of 78 years at the fourth examination. Main Outcome Measures.--Cognitive function, measured by the 100-point Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI), was categorized into good (reference: a CASI score of 92 to 100), intermediate (

Recent research advances may lead to treatments that prevent or slow neurodegeneration in the elderly and in individuals with neurodegenerative disorders. While no treatment is yet available, research shows that substances such as nerve growth factors may help repair damage to or prevent degeneration of nerve cells. Patients with Alzheimer's disease may experience more rapid breakdown of brain cell membranes, especially in cells that release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Patients with neurodegenerative diseases may produce substances that damage cell membranes and genetic material. Patients with Parkinson's disease may have increased production of hydrogen peroxide in nerve cells, which causes the production of substances that injure cells. The number of nerve cells may not decrease with age, but their size may decrease. Changes in nerve cell density and nerve cell receptors may occur in patients with neurodegenerative diseases. Staying mentally active and increasing blood sugar levels may prevent or slow neurodegeneration.