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Any mapping or analysis involving population data aggregated to geographical areas (zones) is subject to the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP), namely that observed patterns are influenced by both the scale (size) and aggregation (boundary placement) of zones. This has important implications, not only for researchers undertaking analyses, but also for national statistical organisations needing to decide what zoning system(s) (sets of zones) to employ to release population data. This thesis explores, enhances and extends automated zone design techniques for the spatial representation of population. It addresses three key themes: the use of automated zone design to explore the modifiable areal unit problem; automated maintenance and adaptation of existing zoning systems; and the importance of building blocks in automated zone design. It shows that administrative geographies are not necessarily the most appropriate zones for exploring health and environment relationships and that automated zone design can be used to explore sensitivity of results to the MAUP. It demonstrates that automated procedures can be used to update existing zoning systems which have become unfit for purpose due to population change, and also to modify existing zones to make them suitable for representation of other phenomena such as workplace statistics. It provides evidence that building blocks are a crucial, but under-rated, component of the zone design process and concludes that all zone design should be based on sound theoretical reasoning and a clear conceptualisation of the phenomena and processes being represented. The thesis has had a demonstrable impact on the fields of environment and health, and official population statistics; its concepts and methods have been employed by a diverse range of researchers, as well as by the Office for National Statistics to create 2011 Census output areas and workplace zones for England and Wales.

This thesis is the first to examine the associations between sexuality and smoking behaviour in Great Britain, using quantitative analyses of secondary data sources. Drawing on previous literature from geography, psychology and epidemiology, the thesis aims to understand the factors associated with greater smoking prevalence in lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) populations, how LGB smoking has changed over time, and whether different measures of sexuality impact smoking and co-behaviour likelihood. Whilst recent calls to reduce smoking prevalence in Great Britain have acknowledged inequalities between LGB and heterosexual populations, few studies in Great Britain have examined smoking trends and patterns in this population beyond prevalence rates. Much of the previous research looking at sexuality and smoking behaviour has been carried out in the United States, where contextual differences mean findings cannot be generalised. This thesis uses multilevel modelling to examine individual and environmental factors in smoking behaviour and patterns to draw comparisons across Great Britain between LGB and heterosexual populations. Findings suggest that, in Great Britain, inequalities in smoking persist between LGB people and heterosexual populations, and also within LGB groups. Across Great Britain, LGB people in certain areas may be more affected by smoking inequalities, and sexual minority women are amongst the most affected. Anti-smoking policies should address these inequalities by taking into account variations by place and recognising that sexual minority populations are more vulnerable.

Ionising radiation is often useful to our society, and has been implemented for medicine, industry, energy generation and defence. However, nuclear and radiation accidents have the capacity to have a negative impact upon humans and may have a long-lasting legacy due to challenges associated with remediation and the slow decay of radionuclides. It is therefore a priority to ensure that there is adequate emergency preparedness, to prevent and manage any accidental release of ionising radiation to the communities that surround nuclear installations (NI). The emergency planning process includes desktop studies and exercises which are designed to examine the impact of hypothetical scenarios in real-time. However, greater spatiotemporal realism is required to understand the scale of a hypothetical radiation exposure to specific populations in space and time, to anticipate how the behaviour of the population will affect the outcome of an emergency, and to determine the strategy required for its management. This thesis presents a new modelling framework for radiation protection, called RADPOP. This framework combines spatiotemporal aggregate population density subgroup estimates with radionuclide plume dispersal modelling and agent-based modelling, to begin to understand how changes in spatiotemporal population density can influence the likelihood of exposure. Whilst sophisticated estimates of meteorological and atmospheric dispersal exist, there limited resources for the production of equivalent and contemporary high-resolution spatiotemporal population statistics. There is also no existing modelling framework for radiation protection and emergency preparedness, which implements spatiotemporal population estimates to understand the subsequent movement of an aggregate population, as it seeks shelter during a radiation emergency. This thesis investigates these challenges with focus upon the female population subgroup, as a group which has been identified in the literature as having greater vulnerability during evacuation.