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In Saccharomyces cerevisiae , the vacuolar protein sorting complexes Vps51/52/53/54 and Vps15/30/34/38 are essential for efficient endosome-to-Golgi complex retrograde transport. Here we investigated the function of Vps15 and Vps51, representative members of these complexes, in the stress resistance, host cell interactions, and virulence of Candida albicans . We found that C. albicans vps15 Δ/Δ and vps51 Δ/Δ mutants had abnormal vacuolar morphology, impaired retrograde protein trafficking, and dramatically increased susceptibility to a variety of stressors. These mutants also had reduced capacity to invade and damage oral epithelial cells in vitro and attenuated virulence in the mouse model of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Proteomic analysis of the cell wall of the vps51 Δ/Δ mutant revealed increased levels of the Crh11 and Utr2 transglycosylases, which are targets of the calcineurin signaling pathway. The transcript levels of the calcineurin pathway members CHR11 , UTR2 , CRZ1 , CNA1 , and CNA2 were elevated in the vps15 Δ/Δ and vps51 Δ/Δ mutants. Furthermore, these strains were highly sensitive to the calcineurin-specific inhibitor FK506. Also, deletion of CHR11 and UTR2 further increased the stress susceptibility of these mutants. In contrast, overexpression of CRH11 and UTR2 partially rescued their defects in stress resistance, but not host cell interactions. Therefore, intact retrograde trafficking in C. albicans is essential for stress resistance, host cell interactions, and virulence. Aberrant retrograde trafficking stimulates the calcineurin signaling pathway, leading to the increased expression of Chr11 and Utr2, which enables C. albicans to withstand environmental stress.

The major fungal pathogen Candida albicans can occupy diverse microenvironments in its human host. During colonization of the gastrointestinal or urogenital tracts, mucosal surfaces, bloodstream, and internal organs, C. albicans thrives in niches that differ with respect to available nutrients and local environmental stresses. Although most studies are performed on glucose-grown cells, changes in carbon source dramatically affect cell wall architecture, stress responses, and drug resistance. We show that growth on the physiologically relevant carboxylic acid, lactate, has a significant impact on the C. albicans cell wall proteome and secretome. The regulation of cell wall structural proteins (e.g. Cht1, Phr1, Phr2, Pir1) correlated with extensive cell wall remodeling in lactate-grown cells and with their increased resistance to stresses and antifungal drugs, compared with glucose-grown cells. Moreover, changes in other proteins (e.g. Als2, Gca1, Phr1, Sap9) correlated with the increased adherence and biofilm formation of lactate-grown cells. We identified mating and pheromone-regulated proteins that were exclusive to lactate-grown cells (e.g. Op4, Pga31, Pry1, Scw4, Yps7) as well as mucosa-specific and other niche-specific factors such as Lip4, Pga4, Plb5, and Sap7. The analysis of the corresponding null mutants confirmed that many of these proteins contribute to C. albicans adherence, stress, and antifungal drug resistance. Therefore, the cell wall proteome and secretome display considerable plasticity in response to carbon source. This plasticity influences important fitness and virulence attributes known to modulate the behavior of C. albicans in different host microenvironments during infection.

The trimeric SNF1 complex from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a homolog of mammalian AMP-activated kinase, has been primarily implicated in signaling for the utilization of alternative carbon sources to glucose. We here find that snf1 deletion mutants are hypersensitive to different cell wall stresses, such as the presence of Calcofluor white, Congo red, Zymolyase or the glucan synthase inhibitor Caspofungin in the growth medium. They also have a thinner cell wall. Caspofungin treatment triggers the phosphorylation of the catalytic Snf1 kinase subunit at Thr210 and removal of this phosphorylation site by mutagenesis (Snf1-T210A) abolishes the function of Snf1 in cell wall integrity. Deletion of the PFK1 gene encoding the α-subunit of the heterooctameric yeast phosphofructokinase suppresses the cell wall phenotypes of a snf1 deletion, which suggests a compensatory effect of central carbohydrate metabolism. Epistasis analyses with mutants in cell wall integrity (CWI) signaling confirm that the SNF1 complex and the CWI pathway independently affect yeast cell integrity.

The opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans occupies various niches of the human body such as the skin and the mucosal surfaces of the gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts. It can also enter the blood stream and cause deadly, systemic infections, especially in immunocompromised patients, but also in immunocompetent individuals through inserted medical devices. To survive in these diverse host environments, C. albicans has developed specialized virulence attributes and rapidly adapts itself to local growth conditions and defense mechanisms. Candida albicans secretes a considerable number of proteins that are involved in biofilm formation, tissue invasion, immune evasion, and wall maintenance, as well as acquisition of nutrients including metal ions. The secretome of C. albicans is predicted to comprise 225 proteins. On a proteomic level, however, analysis of the secretome of C. albicans is incomplete as many secreted proteins are only produced under certain conditions. Interestingly, glycosylphosphatidylinositol proteins and known cytoplasmic proteins are also consistently detected in the growth medium. Importantly, a core set of seven wall polysaccharide-processing enzymes seems to be consistently present, including the diagnostic marker Mp65. Overall, we discuss the importance of the secretome for virulence and suggest potential targets for better and faster diagnostic methods.

During recent years a number of severe clinical syndromes, collectively termed laminopathies, turned out to be caused by various, distinct mutations in the human LMNA gene. Arising from this, remarkable progress has been made to unravel the molecular pathophysiology underlying these disorders. A great benefit in this context was the generation of an A-type lamin deficient mouse line (Lmna\(^{−/−}\)) by Sullivan and others,1 which has become one of the most frequently used models in the field and provided profound insights to many different aspects of A-type lamin function. Here, we report the unexpected finding that these mice express a truncated Lmna gene product on both transcriptional and protein level. Combining different approaches including mass spectrometry, we precisely define this product as a C-terminally truncated lamin A mutant that lacks domains important for protein interactions and post-translational processing. Based on our findings we discuss implications for the interpretation of previous studies using Lmna\(^{−/−}\) mice and the concept of human laminopathies.

Recently, the food yeastCandida utilishas emerged as an excellent host for production of heterologous proteins. Since secretion of the recombinant product is advantageous for its purification, we characterized the secreted proteome ofC. utilis.Cells were cultivated to the exponential or stationary growth phase, and the proteins in the medium were identified by MS. In parallel, a draft genome sequence ofC. utilisstrain DSM 2361 was determined by massively parallel sequencing. Comparisons of protein and coding sequences established thatC. utilisis not a member of the CUG clade ofCandidaspecies. In total, we identified 37 proteins in the culture solution, 17 of which were exclusively present in the stationary phase, whereas three proteins were specific to the exponential growth phase. Identified proteins represented mostly carbohydrate-active enzymes associated with cell wall organization, while no proteolytic enzymes and only a few cytoplasmic proteins were detected. Remarkably, cultivation in xylose-based medium generated a protein pattern that diverged significantly from glucose-grown cells, containing the invertase Inv1 as the major extracellular protein, particularly in its highly glycosylated S-form (slow-migrating). Furthermore, cultivation without ammonium sulfate induced the secretion of the asparaginase Asp3. Comparisons of the secretome ofC. utiliswith those ofKluyveromyces lactisandPichia pastoris, as well as with those of the human fungal pathogensCandida albicansandCandida glabrata, revealed a conserved set of 10 and six secretory proteins, respectively.

The ability ofCandida albicansto switch from yeast to hyphal growth is essential for its virulence. The walls and especially the covalently attached wall proteins are involved in the primary host–pathogen interactions. Three hyphal induction methods were compared, based on fetal calf serum, the amino sugarN-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and the mammalian cell culture medium Iscove’s modified Dulbecco’s medium (IMDM). GlcNAc and IMDM were preferred, allowing stable hyphal growth over a prolonged period without significant reversion to yeast growth and with high biomass yields. We employed Fourier transform-MS combined with a15N-metabolically labelled reference culture as internal standard for relative quantification of changes in the wall proteome upon hyphal induction. A total of 21 wall proteins were quantified. Our induction methods triggered a similar response characterized by (i) a category of wall proteins showing strongly increased incorporation levels (Als3, Hwp2, Hyr1, Plb5 and Sod5), (ii) another category with strongly decreased levels (Rhd3, Sod4 and Ywp1) and (iii) a third one enriched for carbohydrate-active enzymes (including Cht2, Crh11, Mp65, Pga4, Phr1, Phr2 and Utr2) and showing only a limited response. This is, to our knowledge, the first systematic, quantitative analysis of the changes in the wall proteome ofC. albicansupon hyphal induction. Finally, we propose new wall-protein-derived candidates for vaccine development.

Fluconazole is a commonly used antifungal drug that inhibits Erg11, a protein responsible for 14α-demethylation during ergosterol synthesis. Consequently, ergosterol is depleted from cellular membranes and replaced by toxic 14α-methylated sterols, which causes increased membrane fluidity and drug permeability. Surface-grown and planktonic cultures of Candida albicans responded similarly to fluconazole at 0.5 mg/liter, showing reduced biomass formation, severely reduced ergosterol levels, and almost complete inhibition of hyphal growth. There was no evidence of cell leakage. Mass spectrometric analysis of the secretome showed that its composition was strongly affected and included 17 fluconazole-specific secretory proteins. Relative quantification of 14 N-labeled query walls relative to a reference standard mixture of 15 N-labeled yeast and hyphal walls in combination with immunological analysis revealed considerable fluconazole-induced changes in the wall proteome as well. They were, however, similar for both surface-grown and planktonic cultures. Two major trends emerged: (i) decreased incorporation of hypha-associated wall proteins (Als3, Hwp1, and Plb5), consistent with inhibition of hyphal growth, and (ii) increased incorporation of putative wall repair-related proteins (Crh11, Pga4, Phr1, Phr2, Pir1, and Sap9). As exposure to the wall-perturbing drug Congo red led to a similar response, these observations suggested that fluconazole affects the wall. In keeping with this, the resistance of fluconazole-treated cells to wall-perturbing compounds decreased. We propose that fluconazole affects the integrity of both the cellular membranes and the fungal wall and discuss its potential consequences for antifungal therapy. We also present candidate proteins from the secretome for clinical marker development.

In many ascomycetous yeasts, the cell wall is composed of two main types of macromolecules: (a) polysaccharides, with a high content of beta-1,6- and beta-1,3-linked glucan chains and minor amounts of chitin; and (b) cell wall proteins of different types. Synthesis and maintenance of these macromolecules respond to environmental changes, which are sensed by the cell wall integrity (CWI) signal transduction pathway. We here present a first systematic analysis of the cell wall composition of the milk yeast, Kluyveromyces lactis. Electron microscopic analyses revealed that exponentially growing cells of K. lactis supplied with glucose as a carbon source have a wall thickness of 64 nm, as compared to 105 nm when growing on 3% ethanol. Despite their increased wall thickness, ethanol-grown cells were more sensitive to the presence of zymolyase in the growth medium. Mass spectrometric analysis identified 22 covalently linked cell wall proteins, including 19 GPI-modified proteins and two Pir wall proteins. Importantly, the composition of the cell wall glycoproteome depended on carbon source and growth phase. Our results clearly illustrate the dynamic nature of the cell wall of K. lactis and provide a firm base for studying its regulation.

The pathogenic fungus Candida albicans secretes a considerable number of hydrolases and other proteins. In-depth studies of the C. albicans secretome could thus provide new candidates for diagnostic markers and vaccine development. We compared various growth conditions differing in pH, temperature and the presence of the hyphal inducer N-acetylglucosamine. The polypeptide content of the growth media was ca. 0.1-0.2% of the total biomass. Using LC-tandem mass spectrometry, we identified 44 secretory proteins, the transmembrane protein Msb2, six secretory pathway-associated proteins and 28 predicted cytosolic proteins. Many secretory proteins are wall-related, suggesting that their presence in the growth medium is at least partially due to accidental release from the walls. Als3, Csa2, Rbt4, Sap4 and Sap6 were enriched in the medium of hyphal cultures; Bgl2, Cht3, Dag7, Eng1, Pir1, Rbe1, Scw11, Sim1/Sun42, Xog1 and Ywp1 in the medium of yeast cells; and Plb4.5 in pH 4 medium. Seven proteins (Cht3, Mp65, Orf19.5063/Coi1, Scw11, Sim1, Sun41 and Tos1) were consistently present under all conditions tested. These observations indicate that C. albicans tightly regulates its secretome. Mp65, Sun41, and Tos1 were each predicted to contain at least one highly immunogenic peptide. In total, we identified 29 highly immunogenic peptides originating from 18 proteins, including two members of the family of secreted aspartyl proteases. Fifty-six peptides were identified as proteotypic and will be useful for quantification purposes. In summary, the number of identified secretory proteins in the growth medium has been substantially extended, and growth conditions strongly affect the composition of the secretome.

The zinc cluster transcription factor Upc2p mediates upregulation of ergosterol biosynthesis genes in response to ergosterol depletion in the fungal pathogen Candida albicans . One mechanism of acquired resistance to the antifungal drug fluconazole, which inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis, is constitutively increased expression of the ERG11 gene encoding the drug target enzyme. A G648D mutation in Upc2p has recently been shown to cause hyperactivity of the transcription factor, resulting in overexpression of ergosterol biosynthesis genes and increased fluconazole resistance. In order to investigate if gain-of-function mutations in Upc2p are a common mechanism of ERG11 upregulation and fluconazole resistance, we sequenced the UPC2 alleles of four ERG11 -overexpressing, fluconazole-resistant C. albicans isolates and matched susceptible isolates from the same patients. In three of the isolate pairs, no differences in the UPC2 alleles were found, suggesting that mechanisms other than Upc2p mutations can cause ERG11 overexpression. One resistant isolate had become homozygous for a UPC2 allele containing a G1927A substitution that caused an alanine-to-threonine exchange at amino acid position 643 of Upc2p. Replacement of one of the endogenous UPC2 alleles in a fluconazole-susceptible strain by the UPC2 A643T allele resulted in ERG11 overexpression and increased fluconazole resistance, which was further elevated when the A643T mutation was also introduced into the second UPC2 allele. These results further establish gain-of-function mutations in UPC2 , which can be followed by loss of heterozygosity for the mutated allele, as a mechanism of ERG11 overexpression and increased fluconazole resistance in C. albicans , but other mechanisms of ERG11 upregulation also exist.

In Candida albicans, like in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the basal layer of the mature cell wall consists of a network of β-1,3- and β-1,6-glucans and chitin and functions as a skeletal layer. This basal layer is covered by an external layer of highly glycosylated, covalently anchored wall proteins radiating from the cell surface, which are directly involved in the first contacts between the fungal pathogen and host cells. The majority of the covalently bound wall proteins are modular glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-proteins. In their final form, wall-bound GPI-proteins usually consist of a C-terminal, truncated GPI-anchor that attaches them to the β-glucan layer, followed by a heavily glycosylated serine/threonine-rich spacer domain that often includes repeats, and an N-terminally located functional domain protruding from the cell surface [1]. At any given time-point >20 different covalently bound wall proteins can be identified [2], [3] that are involved in processes such as adhesion, biofilm formation, wall remodeling, iron acquisition, and coping with immune responses. Importantly, the wall proteome is highly dynamic and continuously adapts to the specific conditions that C. albicans encounters in the host environment. In this review we examine the role of wall proteins in infection-related processes and assess their potential as targets for antifungal and vaccine development.