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The role of extracytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factors in multiple metal homeostasis of the metallophilic bacterium Cupriavidus metallidurans was studied. RNA sequencing was used to predict 3084 operons in the genome of this bacterium, including 11 for ECF sigma factors, and to measure transcript abundances. Mutants carrying multiple deletions in genes for ECF sigma factors were constructed and characterized. Mutants and parent were challenged with a metal mix, changes in the global gene expression profile and the overall metal content determined. All 11 ECF sigma factors were involved in metal homeostasis. The three ECF sigma factors RpoI, RpoJ and RpoK synchronized iron homeostasis with that of other divalent metal cations, RpoO, RpoL and RpoM magnesium and phosphorous homeostasis with that of zinc and with cadmium resistance. Factors RpoE, CnrH and RpoP controlled the response to nickel and cobalt, RpoQ and RpoR may be assigned to the thiol and sulfide metabolism. All 11 ECF sigma factors overlap in their function and control gene expression involved in metal homeostasis, however, except CnrH, no other ECF sigma factor was needed for up-regulation of 63 predicted operons responding to metal shock, 48 of these encoding metal efflux pumps. Moreover, disturbance of the cellular metal content resulting from missing sigma factors also affected silencing and un-silencing of genomic islands. Together, these data demonstrate on a global and systemic level how a robust network of ECF sigma factors and other regulators allow C. metallidurans to handle a mixture of toxic transition metal cations, which are conditions the bacterium faces in its natural environment. Iron homeostasis is to be maintained at any cost, followed by the necessity for magnesium, phosphorous and zinc homeostasis on the second level, and cobalt plus nickel coming last.

The zinc importer ZupT is required for the efficient allocation of zinc to zinc-dependent proteins in the metal-resistant bacterium Cupriavidus metallidurans but not for zinc import per se . The expression of zupT is upregulated under conditions of zinc starvation. C. metallidurans contains three members of the Fur family of regulators that qualify as candidates for the zupT regulator. The expression of a zupT-lacZ reporter gene fusion was strongly upregulated in a Δ furC mutant but not in a Δ furA or Δ furB mutant. Expression of the genes for transition-metal importers ( pitA , corA1 , corA2 , and corA3 ) was not changed in this pattern in all three Δ fur mutants, but they were still downregulated under conditions of elevated zinc concentrations, indicating the presence of another zinc-dependent regulator. FurA was a central regulator of the iron metabolism in C. metallidurans , and furA was constitutively expressed under the conditions tested. Expression of furB was upregulated under conditions of iron starvation, and FurB could be an iron starvation Fur connecting general metal and iron homeostasis, as indicated by the phenotype of a Δ furB Δ furC double mutant. FurC was purified as a Strep-tagged protein and retarded the electrophoretic mobility of a DNA fragment upstream of zupT . Binding of FurC to this operator region was influenced by the presence of zinc ions and EDTA. Thus, FurC is the main zinc uptake regulator (Zur) of C. metallidurans and represses synthesis of the central zinc importer ZupT when sufficient zinc is present.

In AKI, dying renal cells release intracellular molecules that stimulate immune cells to secrete proinflammatory cytokines, which trigger leukocyte recruitment and renal inflammation. Whether the release of histones, specifically, from dying cells contributes to the inflammation of AKI is unknown. In this study, we found that dying tubular epithelial cells released histones into the extracellular space, which directly interacted with Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2 (TLR2) and TLR4 to induce MyD88, NF-κB, and mitogen activated protein kinase signaling. Extracellular histones also had directly toxic effects on renal endothelial cells and tubular epithelial cells in vitro. In addition, direct injection of histones into the renal arteries of mice demonstrated that histones induce leukocyte recruitment, microvascular vascular leakage, renal inflammation, and structural features of AKI in a TLR2/TLR4-dependent manner. Antihistone IgG, which neutralizes the immunostimulatory effects of histones, suppressed intrarenal inflammation, neutrophil infiltration, and tubular cell necrosis and improved excretory renal function. In summary, the release of histones from dying cells aggravates AKI via both its direct toxicity to renal cells and its proinflammatory effects. Because the induction of proinflammatory cytokines in dendritic cells requires TLR2 and TLR4, these results support the concept that renal damage triggers an innate immune response, which contributes to the pathogenesis of AKI.

Primary and/or secondary injury of the renal microvascular endothelium is a common finding in various renal diseases. Besides well-known endothelial repair mechanisms, including endothelial cell (EC) proliferation and migration, homing of extrinsic cells such as endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) and hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) has been shown in various organs and may contribute to microvascular repair. However, these mechanisms have so far not been studied after selective microvascular injury in the kidney. The present study investigated the time course of EPC and HSC stimulation and homing following induction of selective EC injury in the mouse kidney along with various angiogenic factors potentially involved in EC repair and progenitor cell stimulation. Erythropoietin was used to stimulate progenitor cells in a therapeutic approach. We found that selective EC injury leads to a marked stimulation of EPCs, HSCs, and various angiogenic factors to orchestrate microvascular repair. Angiogenic factors started to increase as early as 30 min after disease induction. Progenitor cells could be first detected in the circulation and the spleen before they selectively homed to the diseased kidney. Injection of a high dose of erythropoietin 2 h after disease induction markedly attenuated vascular injury through nonhemodynamic mechanisms, possibly involving vascular endothelial growth factor release.

Several studies have suggested a prominent (pro)inflammatory and harmful role of platelets in renal disease, and newer work has also demonstrated platelet release of proangiogenic factors. In the present study, we investigated the role of platelets in a mouse model of selective endothelial cell injury using either platelet depletion or the pharmacological P2Y12 receptor blocker clopidogrel as an interventional strategy. The concanavalin A/anti-concanavalin A model was induced in left kidneys of C57bl/6J wild-type mice after initial platelet depletion or platelet-inhibiting therapy using clopidogrel. FACS analysis of glycoprotein IIb/IIIa/P-selectin double-positive platelets and platelet-derived microparticles demonstrated relevant platelet activation after the induction of selective endothelial injury in mice. Enhanced platelet activation persisted for 5 days after disease induction and was accompanied by increased amounts of circulating platelet-derived microparticles as potential mediators of a prolonged procoagulant state. By immunohistochemistry, we detected significantly reduced glomerular injury in platelet-depleted mice compared with control mice. In parallel, we also saw reduced endothelial loss and a consequently reduced repair response as indicated by diminished proliferative activity. The P2Y12 receptor blocker clopidogrel demonstrated efficacy in limiting platelet activation and subsequent endothelial injury in this mouse model of renal microvascular injury. In conclusion, platelets are relevant mediators of renal injury induced by primary endothelial lesions early on, as demonstrated by platelet depletion as well as platelet inhibition via the P2Y12 receptor. While strategies to prevent platelet-endothelial interactions have shown protective effects, the contribution of platelets during renal regeneration remains unknown.