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Objective: To examine criminal justice system (CJS) interactions and pathways through the justice system for young adults with ADHD compared to young adults without ADHD., Method: Nationwide 3-year birth cohort study using linked health and CJS data. Cox proportional hazards models were employed to examine associations between ADHD and police proceedings, court charges, court convictions, and incarcerations., Results: Young adults with ADHD were significantly more likely to interact with the CJS including police proceedings (hazard ratio [HR], 2.1 95% CI [2.0, 2.2]) court charges (HR, 2.2 95% CI [2.1, 2.3]), court convictions (HR, 2.3 95% CI [2.2, 2.4]), and incarceration (HR, 4.8 95% CI [4.3, 5.4])., Conclusions: Young adults with ADHD are overrepresented at all stages of the CJS. Results highlight the importance of early identification and responsivity to ADHD within the CJS and suggest that the NZ justice system may require changes to both areas to ensure that young individuals with ADHD receive equitable access to, and treatment within, the CJS.

Background: Childhood traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in impairments in learning, cognition, and behaviour; all of which can adversely influence educational outcomes. Schools can play a crucial role in rehabilitation, therefore it is important that evidence-based supports are available in these settings., Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effectiveness of school-based supports and interventions available following childhood TBI., Methods: A comprehensive search strategy involved eight research databases, grey literature, and backward reference searching., Results: The search identified 19 studies, reporting on sixteen distinct interventions, which used a variety of person-centred and systemic approaches, and typically contained multiple components, including: psychoeducation, behavioural scripts, and attention training. While offering some indication for future directions in intervention, the evidence base for individual interventions was typically limited, and does not take account of cost or issues in sustainability., Conclusion: While there appears to be great potential to support students who may otherwise not gain access to services, there is insufficient evidence to guide widespread policy or practice change without further research. Greater collaboration between researchers, clinical practitioners, and educators is necessary to ensure that all interventions developed are robustly evaluated and disseminated.

Competing Interests: Declaration of interests No funding was provided specifically for this Commission paper; however, most authors are involved in the International Initiative for Traumatic Brain Injury Research (InTBIR) as a scientific participant or an investigator. This Commission would not have been possible without the indirect facilitation provided by the InTBIR network. AIRM declares consulting fees from PresSura Neuro, Integra Life Sciences, and NeuroTrauma Sciences. DKM reports research support, and educational and consulting fees from Lantmannen AB, GlaxoSmithKline, Calico, PresSura Neuro, NeuroTrauma Sciences, and Integra Neurosciences. GTM declares grants from the US National Institutes of Health-National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (grant U01NS086090), the US Department of Defense (grant W81XWH-14-2-0176, grant W81XWH-18-2-0042, and contract W81XWH-15-9-0001). MC reports licensing fees for ICM+ software from Cambridge Enterprise and was an honorary (unpaid) director for Medicam. PS reports licensing fees for ICM+ software from Cambridge Enterprise. MBS has in the past 3 years received consulting income from Acadia Pharmaceuticals, Aptinyx, atai Life Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bionomics, BioXcel Therapeutics, Clexio, Eisai, EmpowerPharm, Engrail Therapeutics, Janssen, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, and Roche/Genentech. MBS also has stock options in Oxeia Biopharmaceuticals and EpiVario and is paid for editorial work on Depression and Anxiety (Editor-in-Chief), Biological Psychiatry (Deputy Editor), and UpToDate (Co-Editor-in-Chief for Psychiatry). KKWW holds stock options in Gryphon Bio. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Lay Abstract: Sensationalist headlines and highly publicised criminal cases lead many in the public to believe that people with autism are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour. However, recent studies present an unresolved debate, and indicate this may not necessarily be the case. The aims of this study were to examine the prevalence of criminal justice system interactions among young adults with and without autism, and determine whether offence types differ between these groups. We tracked a national birth cohort until their 25th birthday, detecting criminal justice system interactions from age 17 onwards. Linked health and criminal justice system data were used to identify those with autism and detect interactions with the criminal justice system. We found that young people with autism interacted with the criminal justice system at lower rates compared to those without autism. However, there were considerable differences in the types of offences these young people were charged with. For example, among those charged with an offence, people with autism were more likely to be charged with a serious offence, punishable by 2 or more years in prison. We conclude that although young people with autism are not over-represented in the criminal justice system, disparities in offence types and incarceration rates among those charged with an offence suggest the importance of identification and appropriate response to autism within the criminal justice system.

Recent research has highlighted that a high prevalence of young adults who have various forms of neurodivergence come into contact with the criminal justice system. Currently, many courts are not designed to respond to neurological differences often seen in young people who engage with them. The aim of this study was to identify ways to make locality courts more accessible, engaging, and ultimately more responsive to neurodivergence. A panel of neurodivergence specialists reviewed the general district courtroom environment of a new specialised young adult list court in Aotearoa New Zealand to identify potential barriers to accessibility and to highlight areas for improvement. The methodology involved naturalistic observation of a typical morning in the courtroom. We identified a series of recommendations with the potential to improve the court experience and increase access to justice for neurodivergent young adults. This study identified specific need for neurodiversity education and screening within the court environment., (© 2022 The Authors. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Purpose: This paper aims to examine the relationship between patterns of functioning in four domains (attention and concentration; social and communication; coordination and organisation; and literacy and numeracy) in women in prison. Also, to consider potential associations between functioning and previous Neurodevelopmental Disorder (NDD) diagnoses, previous mental health diagnoses and history of head injury, self-harm and attempted suicide., Design/methodology/approach: Women in one Scottish prison were invited to participate; 87 consented. Women were screened for functional difficulties and asked about their relevant educational and medical history., Findings: Half of participants reported difficulties in one or more domains. All possible combinations of functional difficulties were found. Only eight women reported previous NDD diagnoses. Functional difficulties were significantly associated with history of self-harm, history of attempted suicide and mental health diagnoses. In total, 32% of women reported at least one head injury, but this was not significantly associated with functional difficulties., Research Limitations/implications: The sample was comparatively small and questions were self-report. Analyses were based on within-cohort comparisons due to a lack of appropriate general population data., Practical Implications: There is a clear need for timely, practical and comprehensive profiling of females in the Justice System. Current systems do not appear to adequately identify women with functional difficulties or other adversity. Greater use of interdisciplinary working and shared training is indicated, as is a move from categorical diagnostic systems towards dimensional approaches., Originality/value: This study is the first to investigate associations between difficulties associated with NDDs, mental health difficulties and head injury in women in prison., (© Emerald Publishing Limited.)

Purpose: Paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) can have resultant ongoing significant impairments which can impact life outcomes. The primary aim of this research was to explore whether TBI contributes to the relationship between poor educational outcomes and offending trajectories. Materials and methods: Through analysis of a dataset consisting of self-reported health, educational, and offending histories of 70 incarcerated young males, structural equation modelling was used to explore the mediation of educational outcomes and patterns in offending behaviour by chronic symptoms following TBI. Results: Symptoms related to TBI significantly mediated the relationship between decreased educational attainment and more frequent convictions. It did not mediate any relationships involving age at first conviction. Conclusions: Traumatic brain injury appears to have more influence over frequency of offending patterns than age at first conviction. However, TBI remains a pervasive factor in both higher rates of offending and poorer educational attainment. In order to tackle this effect on adverse social outcomes, greater attention to the impact of TBI is required in education and criminal justice systems.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONHighlights traumatic brain injury as a contributory factor in some education to offending pathways, suggesting that greater focus on rehabilitation within the education and criminal justice systems is required.Reinforces that greater understanding of educational pathways post-injury is needed to better facilitate rehabilitation within the school system.

Background: Chronic impairment following childhood traumatic brain injury has the potential to increase risk of negative outcomes. This highlights potential value in community-based rehabilitation programs., Objectives: To identify research studies examining existing intervention programmes available in community-based rehabilitation to adolescents following TBI to assist with the transition back into the community., Methods: A systematic review of community-based interventions was conducted across different national contexts. All included studies involved a clinical population with TBI, aged 11 to 25 years inclusive. Risk of bias was rated for each included study., Results: Seventeen studies were identified for inclusion in the review, of these eleven distinct interventions were found. The quality of evidence was largely weak and highly variable., Conclusion: The results suggest some improvement in adolescent outcomes following community-based interventions, however higher quality evidence is needed to support specific interventions.

Objectives: To examine the prevalence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) among young people in custody and to compare this with estimates within the general youth population., Design: Systematic review of research from various national contexts. Included studies were assessed for the relevance of the definition of TBI and the research population, and the quality of the study design., Results: Ten studies were identified for inclusion in the review. Four of these studies included control groups. No studies examining comorbidity of TBI and other neurodevelopmental disorders among incarcerated young people were identified., Conclusion: Reported prevalence rates of brain injury among incarcerated youth range from 16.5% to 72.1%, with a rate of 100% reported among a sample of young people sentenced to death. This suggests considerable levels of need among incarcerated young people. Where control groups or directly comparable studies within the general population exist, there is strong and consistent evidence of a prevalence of TBI among incarcerated youth that is substantially greater than that in the general population. This disparity is seemingly more pronounced as the severity of the injury increases.