Search

A wasting syndrome in moose ( Alces alces L. ) was investigated. Twenty-five animals exhibiting poor body condition and abnormal behaviour were killed, necropsied and sampled in the field. The abnormal behaviour comprised incoordination, ataxia, circling movements, apathy, lack of normal flight behaviour and recumbency. The diseased moose all exhibited a very poor condition or emaciation. Macroscopic lesions, resembling those of bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD)/mucosal disease, were present in the mucous membranes of all animals affected. Microscopic evidence was lacking. Marked oedema and hyperaemia was regularly found in the abomasal wall. Cerebellar abiotrophy was found in 14 animals and suspected in 6. Antibodies against BVD virus were detected in 9 of 21 examined diseased moose. Low to extremely low copper tissue levels were recorded, while molybdenum levels were high in some and low in other moose. It was concluded that starvation was the basic causative factor. The ability of plants such as birch (Betula spp .) and pine (Pinus spp.) to produce anti-herbivory compounds, contributing to a state of malnutrition, is discussed. Key words: Alces alces, abiotrophy, anti-herbivory compounds, moose, virus, trace elements, malnutrition, wasting disease .

The gastrointestinal tract of all animals is colonized with a vast, complex and dynamic consortium of microorganisms. In spite of recent progress in molecular microbiology, this complexity makes a proper qualitative and quantitative evaluation difficult and expensive to perform. In the present review we discuss the results obtained from applying a functional concept for studying intestinal host–microbial interactions in eight mammalian species and two species of fish. We show that microbial interactions with endogenous derived substrates such as cholesterol, bilirubin, mucin and trypsin occur in all species. Exogenous compounds (e.g. carbohydrate, protein, fibre) are also acted upon by the intestinal microflora. From an evolutionary point of view, dietary differences have led to a compartmentalized variability in microbial functions. Taken together, the results in this review underscore the importance of understanding precisely how gastrointestinal metabolism serves to establish a symbiotic cross-talk bet...

This study was designed to develop reliable methods for quantification of cortisol and cortisol immunoreactive metabolites (C-CIM) and immunoglobulin A (IgA) in reindeer serum, saliva, urine, and feces as tools for the objective noninvasive assessment of well-being and immunocompetence in reindeer. Although C-CIM was readily quantifiable by radioimmunoassay in serum, urine, and feces, the levels in saliva samples were low, rendering quantification unreliable. Whereas IgA concentrations were high in feces samples, they were much lower, albeit quantifiable, in serum and urine; the levels in saliva samples were too low for quantification with the use of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay that we developed. Further studies are in progress to validate the usefulness of fecal levels of C-CIM and IgA in the assessment of welfare in reindeer.

A pilot study: Digestion inhibiting effect of silver birch in moose

Twenty-three reindeer bulls, aged 2-3 years, fed during two winter months at the Vuolda reindeer research station in Arjeplog, Sweden, were used in the study. The first group of eight reindeer was moved from their feeding corral to a selection corral, captured by lasso and stunned with a captive bolt outside the selection corral. The second group of seven reindeer was moved to the selection corral, captured by lasso and restrained, after which they were loaded onto a lorry- and transported for 1 hour and then slaughtered. The third group of eight reindeer was moved to the selection corral and herded directly onto the lorry, without any manual handling. They were transported for 5 h and then slaughtered. In both transport groups, four reindeer were fitted with pre-programmed automatic blood sampling equipment (ABSE). ABSE sampled blood at predetermined times via a jugular vein catheter. Ultimate pH-values in three muscles (Mm. longissimus, triceps brachii and biceps femoris) were significantly lower in the group carefully handled and transported for 5 h compared with the other two groups. The physiological mechanisms behind these results are discussed. Samples from M. semimembranosus were collected at slaughter and after 2, 6 and 10 days of refrigerated storage (+4 °C). The samples were analysed for total counts of aerobic bacteria (pour-plated in Tryptone Glucose Extract Agar, Difco, incubated at 20 °C and 30 °C, respectively for 72 h), coliform bacteria 37 °C (pour-plated in Violet Red Bile Agar, Oxoid, incubated at 37 °C for 24 h), Enterococci (surface-plated onto Slantez and Bartley Agar, Oxoid, incubated at 44 °C for 48 h) and Bacillus cereus (surface-plated onto Blood Agar Plates (Blood Agar Base, Difco, supplemented with 5% defibrinated horse blood) 30 °C for 24 h). All samples fell in the range 'fit for consumption'. At slaughter, there was no difference in ASAT activity, urea and Cortisol concentrations between the two transported groups. However, the plasma ASAT activity and urea concentrations at slaughter were significantly lower in the non-transported group. In both transport groups, the plasma Cortisol concentrations increased during loading onto and unloading from the lorry. Abomasal lesions were observed in all treatment groups. It was concluded that reindeer showed an acute stress response to manual handling and transport.

Forty-one reindeer bulls (age 1 1/2 years) were subjected to different pre-slaughter treatments: herding for a short distance to a grazing corral, selection by use of a lasso, lorry transport and helicopter herding for 1, 2 and 3 days respectively. As control, 9 reindeer were shot without previous handling (in the mountains). The results indicated the traditional selection technique of using a lasso to be the most stressful and glycogen-depleting handling procedure so far studied. In the lasso-selected reindeer the lowest glycogen values and the highest ultimate pH values in the meat were measured. The values of the measured parameters indicating stress (aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), urea, Cortisol and abomasal lesions) were also highest in these reindeer. By contrast, the modern method of herding by helicopter was not found to be detrimental to glycogen content, ultimate pH, the measured blood metabolites, or the frequency of abomasal lesions. In all treatment groups degenerative lesions were observed in the skeletal muscles. No relarionship between technological and sensory meat quality characteristics and skeletal muscle lesions in reindeer could, however, be found in this study. The study confirmed an earlier finding that a 'stress-flavour' could develop in reindeer meat after intensive pre-slaughter handling of the animals. Further study of when and how such "stress-flavour" develops ought to be undertaken.

The winter 1993-94 was hard with periods of severe cold and a thick, snow layer. In the beginning of January 1994, approximately 500 reindeer calves were separated from the main herd and corralled for supplementary feeding. During this period around 30 calves died by emaciation and other circumstances related to the change in feeding regimes. Fourteen days later, the calves were rounded up, lassoed and transported around 50 km to another corral. The animals, under severe stress and underfed were offered an insufficiently pelleted feed. After two days, some animals showed signs of eye irritation and on the third and fourth days, several calves had developed unilateral or bilateral kerato-conjunctivitis and blindness. The remaining 390 calves, were slaughtered at the end of January. During the time spent in the second corral, around 80 calves died by emaciation, some of them were blind. Around 300 calves were then, or had been, affected. Of these about 240 were unilaterally blind and 60 bilaterally blind. Bacteriological, virological, electron-microscopical and histopathological investigations showed that fodder particles in the conjunctival sac caused the primary lesions which were secondarily invaded by opportunistic bacteria. The stressful situation of the calves may have contributed to the severity and the rapid development of the lesions.

Automatic blood sampling equipment (ABSE) was used successfully to collect blood samples from two reindeer. During blood sampling, two methods of restraint were applied which caused no short term changes in plasma concentrations of urea, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase or total protein. Plasma Cortisol concentrations were significantly elevated by the two restraint techniques. The value of ABSE in studies of stress in reindeer is discussed.

During december 1992 a moose cow with severely incoordinated and atactic movements was observed at several occasions in an area 20 km north of Uppsala. She was followed by a calf with normal movements and appearance. The 31 of January the cow was found laying in the forest unable to raise and walk. She was killed by means of a rifle shot in the neck and necropsied on the spot.

In 11 male reindeer, all esposed to transportation stress, signs of conjunctivitis and later on ulcerative and necrotizing lesions of the mucosa of the nostrils and mouth were recorded. Blood and secretions from the nose were sampled. Antibodies to bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) were detected in 2 animals. No animal had antibodies to bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV). Virus isolation was negative. The sampling was repeated 2 weeks later and complemented with biopsies from the mouth lesions, fixed in formalin. At this occasion 3 animals were seropositive to BHV-1 and in biopsies from 2 of these intranuclear herpesvirus-like particles were found by means of electron microscopy. Four animals, 3 of them seropositive, were treated with cortison during 8 days. The size of the ulcers in the mouth increased in all animals. A herpesvirus was isolated from 3 of them at 10 different occasions. The ultrastructural investigation of the virus suspension demonstrated the presence of typical herpesvirus particles. On day 11 all 4 animals suffered from a severe diarrhoea and anorexia. On day 12 one animal died and on day 13 post challenge with cortison two additional animals died. The remaining animal was slaughtered on day 13. Bacteriological investigation revealed growth of Fusobacterium necrophorum from the spleen and oral wounds of all 4 animals. The animals were obviously subjected to an infection with a herpesvirus colsely related to BHV-1. Virus could be liberated by cortison treatment. It is possible that infections with the found herpesvirus, and the lesions caused by it, may be the background to earlier recorded severe outbreaks of necrobacillosis of the alimentary tract in reindeer herds.

The ultrastructure pf Besnoitia cysts in reindeer is described. The observations made on Besnoitia cysts and merozoites indicate a form distinct enough to be placed in a new species - Besnoitia tarandi.

Farmed fallow deer suddenly developed disease showing lethargy, weakness, anorexia and several of them died. The animals showed macroscopic lesions in the digestive mucosa characterized by erosions, ulcers and necrotizing lesions. Histo-pathology of the mucous membranes revealed marked inter- and intracellular oedema, erosions, ulcers and intracyto-plasmic inclusions bodies. BVD-virus was demonstrated in 1 deer using an indirect immunofluorescence method. It is suggested that the disease may have been caused by Bovine Virus Diarrhea virus alone or in conjunction with a simultaneous infection by another unidentified virus.

Aortas of 20 reindeer, aged from 1.5 to 8.5 years, were studied. Fatty streaks were seen in 9, a fibrous plaque in 1, and elastic tissue degeneration in the tunica media in 4 of the aortas.

Calf mortality among wild and semidomesticated animals, especially reindeer, is established to be high. The authors describe a telemetric method with subcutaneously implanted transmitters which are activated by the lowered body temperature in connection with the death of the animal, enabling it to be found and brought in for pathological examination. Frequency selection, implantation technique and design of transmitter, power source, antenna and surveillance methods are discussed, with a background of commercially available equipment.

Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were observed in the digestive epithelium of fallow deer (Dama dama L) suffering from bovine virus diarrhea/mucosal disease. Similar inclusion bodies were also found in the ruminal epithelium of fallow deer subjected to overfeeding by supplementary food. Inclusion bodies were not found in the upper alimentary mucosa of clinically healthy deer but were frequently found when these tissues were subjected to autolysis. At electron microscopical studies the inclusion bodies were found to consist of granular protein-like material encircled by a single membrane. Such inclusion bodies may constitute a non-specific degenerative cell response which could be elicited by diverse factors including autolysis.

The ultrastructure of bovine horn cancer (squamous cell carcinoma) of Indian cattle is described. The tumour was composed of pleomorphic epithelial cells. The nuclei were enlarged with membrane invaginations and peripherally distributed heterochromatin and pleomorphic nucleoli. The cytoplasm contained bundles of tono-filaments and keratohyalin granules. In addition a majority of the cells revealed marked degenerative changes of the cytoplasmic orga-nellae and intracellular oedema. Desmosomes were rarely observed. Budding of virus-like particles from the cell membrane of a few cells was demonstrated.

An electron microscopical study of chronic lung lesions in 12 clinically healthy, purpose bred laboratory rabbits (eight of which were free from infections with known respiratory pathogens but 4 of them carried a natural B. bronchiseptica infection) revealed focal chronic interstitial pneumonia, vascular changes and focal chronic bronchiolitis. In addition, severe endothelial changes and intravascular deposition of collagen were observed in septal capillaries. In type I pneumocytes and septal capillary endothelium we noticed numerous rounded structures, 70-90 nm in diameter, which consisted of a limiting two layer membrane enclosing an irregularly rounded electron-dense centre surrounded by a more electron-lucent halo. These structures appeared free in the cytoplasm, or they were attached to or apparently budding from membranes other than the plasmalemma. Particles located extracellularly were not found. Whether the structures described were involved in the genesis of the lesions found remains to be elucidated.

Six investigations were performed in order to explore the possibility that mycoplasma, rickettsia, rickettsia-like organisms or virus can be connected with outbreaks of keratitis in reindeer. It has not been poissible in the investigations undertaken to confirm the presence of any of these organisms, indicating that they do not act as etiological agents in keratitis in reindeer.

The fine structure of the pig cornea in normal conditions and after being used in a perfusion apparatus, for 4 h, is described. Earlier reports on the normal morphology of the pig cornea were partly not confirmed. Thus the number of cell layers in the epithelium was found to be 19-23 (a basal cell layer, 4–5 polyhedral cell layers and 14–17 squamous cell layers) compared to earlier reported 6–9 layers. The mean thickness of normal and perfused corneas were 722 μm and 752 μm respectively. Normal corneas had a hydration level of 77.2 % and after perfusion 78.5 %. The normal morphology and morphological changes due to exposure to perfusion were studied by light and electron microscopy. The differences observed between normal and perfused corneas have to be considered limited, and restricted mainly to the anterior squamous epithelium and the endothelium. Taken together our results indicate that the corneas used in the apparatus still had functional integrity.

During the first 5 months of 1985, 35 moose were obtained for necropsy at the National Veterinary Institute, Uppsala, Sweden. 17 (49 %) of these cases were found to be infected with Elaphostrongylus sp. The nematodes were found in the epidural space of the spinal cord and brain, around and in the sciatic nerves and in muscle fasciae. Predilection sites appeared to be near cauda equina and the fasciae of the thoracic, gracilis and sartorius muscles. Most of the infected animals were calves. Both sexes were equally represented. Pathological changes found were characterized by focal haemorrhages and oedema. The changes were present in the muscle fasciae and in the leptomeninges of the brain and spinal cord. Beside infiltrates of mainly lymphocytes and plasma cells, adult nematodes, larvae and eggs were observed. Cases with mild gliosis in the cerebrum and degenerative changes of peripheral nerve roots affecting the epi- and perineurium were also found. In one case the inflammatory changes reached the endoneurium of a sciatic nerve bundle and in another case into a ganglion. Inflammatory reactions against the parasite were mainly directed towards eggs. In loose connective tissue close to nerve tissue in the central nervous system larvae were found close to eggs and remains of eggs indicating that eggs may hatch at this site. This investigation shows that natural infections with Elaphostrongylus sp. occur in wild moose and may produce pathological changes in large peripheral nerves and in the central nervous system.

Biopsy material of the ileum and corresponding mesenteric lymph nodes from 10 naturally infected goats was studied. In ileum a loss of epithelial cells and infiltration of epitheloid cells, macrophages and a low number of lymphocytes, plasma cells and occasional eosinophils were seen. Ultrastructurally, the epithelial cells showed degenerative changes. Epitheloid cells were characterized by a large nucleus and a wide cytoplasm rich in free ribosomes. Macrophages had been fixed in the process of engulfing bacteria or contained bacteria in phagosomes and phagolysosomes. Large phagolysosomes were common. In macrophages with many or large phagolysosomes, few or no lysosomes were observed. Degenerative changes were seen in macrophages containing many bacteria. Degenerative changes of capillary endothelium were observed. The intercellular spaces were distended by oedema and contained cell debris. The mesenteric lymph nodes were infiltrated with epitheloid cells and macrophages. The ultrastructural picture of these cells was almost identical to that of the ileum. The differences between the changes found in naturally infected and experimentally infected animals are discussed. It is concluded that the mode of infection, the number of bacteria to which the animal is exposed and the intervals between events of exposure may play a role.

In reindeer, subjected to stress, marked changes were found in some blood constituents when compared with unstressed animals, i.e. the white blood cell composition, Cortisol and urea values. Mental stress, due to handling appears to be of great importance in reindeer. Elevated urea values in stressed animals may cause a decreased meat quality.

In 34 out of 60 aortas from roe deer, aged from 6 months to more than 8 years, aortic lesions were found. The frequency of affected regions involved were, in the posterior abdominal portion 53.3 %, in the aortic arch 18.3 %, in the anterior abdominal portion 16.7 %, in the posterior thoracic portion 8.33 % and in the anterior thoracic portion 3.3 %. Of the observed lesions, fatty streaks were seen in 3, fatty streaks and fibrous plaques in 3, fatty streaks with complicated lesions (calcification and acid mucopolysaccharides) in 14 and fibrous plaques with complicated lesions in 14 of the aortas. Elastic tissue degeneration of the inner two thirds of the tunica media was principally found in the aorta of the animals beyond 4 years of age. The lesions significantly (P < 0.001) increased in number and severity with age and appeared to be more progressive in pregnant animals. There was, however, no significant difference between affected male and female animals in the different age groups.

At routine post-mortem of a moose an inclusion-body-like configuration of the nuclei of the cells in the granule layer of the cerebellum was found. This was also observed to a lesser extent in glial cells of the cerebrum, epithelial cells of the collecting tubules of kidney and in the hepatocytes.

The significance of the presence of 1st instar larvae of the reindeer nostril fly (Cephenomyia trompe L) in the conjunctival sac of reindeer was investigated. The influences of natural ultraviolet radiation upon the development of inflammatory reactions of the eyes was also studied. It is stated that both 1st instar larvae of the Cephenomyia fly, when deposited on the eye, and natural ultraviolet radiation may act as predisposing or enhancing factors in the etiology of keratitis in reindeer. In certain cases keratitis may develop when both parameters are present.

The structure of the corneas of adult and young reindeer, roedeer and elk was studied. The corneas were strikingly similar in general appearance. The number of squamous cells was found to be the main difference. The thickness of the cornea and that of the membrane of Descemet was found to be greater in older animals.

In forest herds of Swedish reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), an increasing frequenzy of liver lesions has been observed during the last 5–6 years in connection with autumn slaughters. For this reason a gross pathological inspection of the slaughtered reindeer in four forest herds and one mountain herd was conducted in September 1972 and again in 1973 in one forest herd. The 1972 investigation was complemented with histopathological and 1973 with bacteriological and parasitological investigations.

At post-mortem examination of a roedeer and a moose, ulcerative and necrotizing lesions were observed in the digestive mucosa. Both animals were serologically positive for Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus antibodies. Histological examination revealed intra- and intercellular oedema in stratum germinativum and spinosum, formation of vesicles and ulcers, and intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in numerous epithelial cells of mainly stratum germinativum. Electronmicroscopy confirmed the histological findings and demonstrated inclusion bodies containing a granular electron dense material encircled by a single-layer membrane. Virus particles were not found.