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Death is a phenomenon that humans regarded as being part of the cycle of life, contemplated, sought to identify, and defined since the inception of mankind. It has been believed that death does not mark the end of a person's life, and rather the deceased migrate to another world and continue to exist there. Burial rituals among humans within the framework of the belief in the afterlife have been effective in the emergence of various types of tombs. Different types of tombs that arose based on faith are essential documents that reflect the society's artistic taste, beliefs, and cultural level. With the headpieces, inscriptions, figures and object embellishments they display, they indicate the gender of the person buried in the tomb. While male gravestones include headpieces called headgears, female gravestones reflect the female soul with the gentler and decorated compositions of embellishments reflecting the artistic taste of their time. Mardin, which bears the traces of countless civilizations throughout thousands of years of history, was plundered and devastated many times as a result of wars and invasions and the tombs in the city were also affected by this, with no surviving samples apart from more recent ones. Certain examples of decorated female gravestones dated back to the late 19th century and early 20th century in the Muhammed Zırar (Dırar) cemetery in Mardin were evaluated within the framework of the discipline of Art History. The samples evaluated are female gravestones, and these were categorized into three as those displaying shahides, cists and pehle stones.The evaluated samples' similarities and differences with other samples from the region and around the country are discussed in terms of material, form, technical, and decorative aspects. The samples reviewed in the conclusion section have been found to have similar structural and aesthetic qualities to tombstones found in locations such as Cizre, Savur, Nusaybin, and Siirt., Ölüm, insanoğlunun var olduğu andan itibaren yaşam döngüsünden ayırmadığı, kafa yorduğu, tanımaya ve tanımlamaya çalıştığı bir olgudur. Ölümün bir son olmadığı, ölen bireyin bu dünyadan ayrılarak başka bir aleme göç ettiğine, o alemde yaşamaya devam ettiğine inanılmıştır. Öteki dünya anlayışıyla birlikte insanlardaki ölüyü gömme ritüelleri birbirinden farklı mezar çeşitlerinin ortaya çıkmasında etkili olmuştur. İnanca bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan mezar çeşitleri ait oldukları toplumun sanat zevkini, inancını ve kültür düzeyini yansıtan önemli belgelerdir. Üzerlerinde ihtiva ettikleri başlık, yazı, figür ve nesneli bezemeleriyle yatanın cinsiyetini belirtir özelliktedirler. Erkek mezar taşlarında serpuş denilen başlık yer alırken, kadın mezar taşları daha zarif, süslü ve dönemin sanat zevkini yansıtan yoğun süsleme kompozisyonlarıyla kadının ruhunu yansıtır özelliktedirler. Binlerce yıllık geçmişi ve sayısız uygarlığın izini taşıyan Mardin, savaş ve istilalar sonucu birçok kez yakılıp, yıkılmış, mezar taşları da bu olumsuzluklardan nasibini almış ve günümüze yakın tarihli örnekler dışında gelen örnek olmamıştır. Mardin’de Muhammed Zırar (Dırar) mezarlığında 19. yüzyıl sonu ile 20. yüzyılın başına tarihlenen bezemeli kadın mezar taşlarından birkaç örnek Sanat Tarihi disiplini çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Değerlendirilmeye alınan örnekler kadın mezar taşları olup, şahideli, sandukalı ve pehle taşlı olmak üzere üç grupta tanıtılmıştır. Ele alınan örneklerin malzeme, form, teknik ve süsleme özellikleri bakımından bölge ve yurt genelindeki örneklerle benzer ve ayrılan yönlerine değinilmiştir. Sonuç kısmında ele alınan örneklerin Cizre, Savur, Nusaybin, Siirt gibi merkezlerde yer alan mezar taşlarıyla benzer form ve süsleme özelliklerine sahip oldukları tespit edilmiştir.

This article presents a description of Khankarinsky Dol mound 34 on the left bank of the Inya River, 1–1.5 km southeast of Chineta, Krasnoshchekovsky District, Altai Territory. Excavations revealed a cist with a supine burial of a male, whose head was oriented to the east. Beyond the eastern wall of the cist, a horse cranium and three crania of sheep were placed. Features of the burial rite suggest that the burial belongs to the Korgantass type, which is distributed over the Altai-Sayan and Kazakhstan, with certain parallels in northern China. Principal categories of offerings are analyzed, including those associated with the horse. On their basis, the horse harness is reconstructed. On the basis of the typology of artifacts and radiocarbon analysis, the burial was dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC (possibly late 5th to early 4th centuries BC). The Korgantass burials at Khankarinsky Dol and elsewhere in the Altai Mountains indicate a migration from the eastern part of the nomadic world, apparently from northern China or the Trans-Baikal region.

Wupatki National Monument archaeologists recently recovered artifacts from an exposed cist that were about to fall into a newly formed wash due to intensified downpours related to climate change. Monument staff worked with traditionally associated tribes to create an emergency excavation plan and a contingency for the reburial of cist contents should human remains be encountered. When no human remains were found, the Wupatki curator accessioned and cataloged the cist contents which included seven intact prehistoric pots. Because intact pottery is seldom found outside of a burial context, the monument and its Friend’s Group sought to place the items on display. However, when the Wupatki curator consulted with Hopi elders about the cist contents for the exhibit, she learned that what archaeologists thought to be a “pot cache” was something else entirely. The article discusses the events that led to the eventual “accession by mistake” process, the reburial of the cist contents, and the resulting lessons learned.

Recent analysis of Early Bronze Age human remains from Staarvey Farm on the Isle of Man has revealed a rare bone knife pommel and 20 other bone objects, offering insight into the importance of bone ornaments and artefact fittings at this time. This article adopts a relational typological approach to analyse the Staarvey burial and comparable assemblages, identifying patterns in the deposition of knife pommels in central and southern Britain. In exploring regional interaction in Early Bronze Age Britain and Ireland, the authors refine and move beyond traditional typologies to trace types of both objects and practice. This approach allows them to consider multiple, overlapping spheres of funerary practice and their relation to identities at different regional scales.

Introduction. The article focuses on the analysis of solar elements in the burial rite of the Kemi Oba culture of the Early Bronze Age. Methods and materials. The material draws attention to the painting of the grave cist from Koyash (Vodnoye) village that presents a set of mythopoetic schemes and plots, their interpretation proceeds from the processes of comprehension of the outside world. Analysis. The paper identifies the ideograms on the basis of the painting of the grave cist under study: the circle with a dot in its center, the concentric circle, the triangle. The burial rite of the Kemi Oba culture focuses on the conceptualization of the afterlife in terms of observations of the solar nature, which is consistent with the prevailing Indo-European concepts of the Bronze Age. The sign of the concentric circle in the Kemi Oba culture appears as a solar symbol based on the analogies in the Indo-European mythology. The ideogram is part of the plot with dynamic character, and participates in the mythopoetic scheme based on the dichotomies: up – down, this life – afterlife in the context of the Axis Mundi idea. Four suns as part of the plot of the painted cist demonstrate the non-static solar nature, its four states, and, consequently, suggests the solar myth that has a spatio-temporal realization. Results. The cosmological picture of the world of the Kemi-Oba people includes the processes of categorization of the environment objectified through the fragmentation of the path of the sun, i.e. duality and quaternary.

Thermo-sensitive genic male-sterile (TGMS) gene tms5 is most widely used in the two-line hybrid breeding system in China. To develop novel rice thermo-sensitive male sterile lines, we knocked out the TMS5 genes of six elite japonica and four indica rice varieties by using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology. By analyzing the critical sterility-inducing temperature (CIST) of the newly TGMS lines, it was found that the CIST of japonica TGMS lines ZG75S, CYGS, YG0618S, ZG07S, T0361S, and 7679S were between 28°C and 32°C, the CIST of indica TGMS lines 2537S, 6150S and 6379S were between 24°C and 28°C, and the CIST of indica TGMS line 1109S was lower than 23.5°C. These results indicated that the CIST of tms5 mutant from different genetic background materials was different. The TGMS lines with lower CIST could be obtained by knocking out the TMS5 from different genetic background materials. A hybrid rice combination 1109S / 8048 had high quality and high yield. The yield of 1109S/8048 was 13.1% higher than that of Fengliangyou 4. The creation of the TGMS 1109S and the high-yield cross combination 1109S/8048 provides a new way for high-yield breeding.

Nif Mountain is located approximately at the borders of Kemalpasa, Torbali, and Buca districts in the east of Izmir which is located in the west of Turkey. Nif Mountain has three investigated sectors, namely as Dagkizilca, Karamatepe, and Baspinar. Surface investigations were started in 2004. The areas include the surrounding area of the monastery complex in Dagkizilca that belongs to the classic Hellenistic period. Since official excavations can only be carried out in the summer period, some illegal excavations were also encountered in the study area, and it was seen that these illegal excavations destroyed historical remains. Despite the illegal excavations, it is estimated that some ancient ruins and burial areas (Tumulus, chamber tombs, cist graves, terracotta sarcophagus, etc.) expected to be in the Dagkizilca area are still buried. For this purpose, archeo-geophysical research was carried out in the Dagkizilca area using the electric tomography method. We aimed to determine the location and depth of the buried structures and graves, as the geo-electric survey was carried out via Wenner-Alfa array along 8 profiles 1 m apart in two areas. One of them was on top of the illegally excavated grave to test the results of the electrical method. It was observed in the resistivity images that our results were successful in getting an idea of the electrical resistivity anomaly on the grave. To detect a similar anomaly in other untouched parts of the study area, measurements were taken in 7 profiles. An anomaly, similar to obtained from our test profile, was observed in one profile. To test the accuracy of this anomaly, a new measurement was taken by shifting the beginning of the measurement point on the profile. Thus, the findings were tested once again. The exact location of the buried tomb was eventually found. Consequently, this study reveals possible buried remains that cannot be observed from the surface. It was made to quickly display the location, shape, depth, etc. features. Thus, it has been shown that the ruins can be reached more quickly and at a lower cost without deterioration by guiding the archeological studies.

Stone cist graves dating to the Bronze Age through to the late medieval period are well attested across Western Europe. In the Americas, such cist graves are found only on the island of Saba in the Dutch Caribbean. First starting in the colonial period, this funerary practice continues on Saba to the present day, representing a cultural continuity with rural seventeenth-century populations—probably settlers from the British Isles. This article discusses the recent excavation of several cist burials on Saba, their structural forms and their relevance for understanding cultural continuity in the Caribbean of the historical period.

The presented study focuses on the role of applied ethics(cist) in managing the quality of life in the post-risk society. Given that, from an ethical point of view, it is appropriate to reflect the quality of life also through other than quantitative, i.e. objective and therefore also measurable indicator, it is important to be also focused on the action of a person that leads to increasing his/her satisfaction, the feeling of happiness as a subjective indicator. The aim of this study is to point out the importance of ethical parameterization of the quality of life as well as the search for suitable concepts in its fulfilment.

Excavations by Chichester and District Archaeology Society on the site of a Roman villa at Warblington, near Emsworth, Hampshire, revealed a small stone cist containing two lead packages. While interpretation as a burial is explored, it appears more likely that the cist and its contents represent a ritual deposit within a domestic structure.

This paper reports on the MH II/III Burial Cluster II excavated at the MH acropolis of Aghios Ioannis in Boeotia, Greece. The burial ground comprises various funerary structures (tumulus, rectangular enclosure, cist graves) and provides evidence on primary and secondary mortuary treatment. The analysis is based on the remains of 22 individuals and explores issues of health and mortuary practices. The contextual approach of the human osteological remains reveals variations in the treatment at death of different age groups and evidence of differences in mortuary practices according to biological sex and everyday life; results add further to the discussion on the renegotiated individual and collective identities in the mortuary sphere at this formative period for the subsequent Mycenaean era in Boeotia and Mainland Greece. 1. Introduction 2. Materials and methods 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Taphonomic and mortuary analysis 3.2. Paleopathological analysis 4. Conclusions

Wereport the case of a 59-year-old male with cholelithiasis, choledocholithiasis, and biliary obstruction due to enolic chronic pancreatitis. He was treated 7 years previously with cholecystectomy, ERCP, and a fully-coated biliary metal stent for 6 months.

Compressive sensing (CS) has been widely utilized in inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging, since ISAR measured data are generally non-completed in cross-range direction, and CS-based imaging methods can obtain high-quality imaging results using under-sampled data. However, the traditional CS-based methods need to pre-define parameters and sparse transforms, which are tough to be hand-crafted. Besides, these methods usually require heavy computational cost with large matrices operation. In this paper, inspired by the adaptive parameter learning and rapidly reconstruction of convolution neural network (CNN), a novel imaging method, called convolution iterative shrinkage-thresholding (CIST) network, is proposed for ISAR efficient sparse imaging. CIST is capable of learning optimal parameters and sparse transforms throughout the CNN training process, instead of being manually defined. Specifically, CIST replaces the linear sparse transform with non-linear convolution operations. This new transform and essential parameters are learnable end-to-end across the iterations, which increases the flexibility and robustness of CIST. When compared with the traditional state-of-the-art CS imaging methods, both simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed CIST-based ISAR imaging method can obtain imaging results of high quality, while maintaining high computational efficiency. CIST-based ISAR imaging is tens of times faster than other methods.

This contribution describes the discovery and subsequent investigation of a cist in a rock-cut pit at Achavanich, Highland. Discovered and excavated in 1987, the cist was found to contain the tightly contracted skeletal remains of a young woman, accompanied by a Beaker, three flint artefacts and a cattle scapula. Initial post excavation work established a date for the skeleton together with details of her age and sex, and preliminary pollen analysis of sediments attaching to the Beaker was undertaken. The findings were never fully published and, upon the death of the excavator, Robert Gourlay, the documentary archive was left in the Highland Council Archaeology Unit. Fresh research in 2014–17, initiated and co-ordinated by the first-named author and funded by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland with assistance from National Museums Scotland, the Natural History Museum and Harvard Medical School, has produced a significant amount of new information on the individual and on some of the items with which she was buried. This new information includes two further radiocarbon dates, a more detailed osteological report, isotopic information pertaining to the place where she had been raised and to her diet, histological information on the decomposition of her body, and genetic information that sheds light on her ancestry, her hair, eye and skin colour and her intolerance of lactose. (This is the first time that an ancient DNA report has been published in the Proceedings.) Moreover, a facial reconstruction adds virtual flesh to her bones. The significance of this discovery within the Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age of this part of Scotland is discussed, along with the many and innovative ways in which information on this individual, dubbed ‘Ava’, has been disseminated around the world.

Among the important antiquities of Altai Bronze Age, Karakol burial site (dated to the beginning of the 2nd mill. BCE) can be selected. The images are overlapped; the ones synchronous to the burial ritual were performed in a complex technique, including painting, pecking, engraving, and abrasion. Studies at the National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute” (NRC KI), including scanning electron microscopy combined with X-ray microanalysis and powder X-ray diffraction on the Belok station (Kurchatov synchrotron radiation source (KSRS)), revealed that red (ochres of different hues) and black (soot) pigments were used to to produce paint at the Karakol site. An analysis of the red paints showed their composition to be homogeneous within one burial but differ from burial to burial. An analysis of the colored line on slab 1 (Karakol, burial 3, mound 2) made it possible to establish its natural origin and reasonably reject the hypothesis that it was painted.

Naxos, the largest of the Cycladic islands, offers a nuanced insight into Iron Age funerary behaviour in the Cyclades and relations between social groups as reflected in the archaeological record. The focus of this paper is the cemetery of Tsikalario in the hinterland of the island, with emphasis on two burial contexts which exhibit a range of activities related to funerary ceremonies and the consumption of grave-offerings. The grave-tumuli found in the Tsikalario cemetery comprise a mortuary ‘phenomenon’ not found otherwise on Naxos during the Early Iron Age. Such a differentiation in mortuary practice can be interpreted as a strategy used by the people of inland Naxos to distinguish their funerary habits from the more typical Naxian practices of, for example, the inhabitants of the coastal Naxos harbour town. This distinctive funerary practice can speak in favour of an attempt by the kinship group(s) that buried their deceased in the cemetery of Tsikalario to articulate status and identity. Beyond these tumuli, evidence from a different type of grave context at Tsikalario – Cist Grave 11 and its vicinity (Burial Context 11) – offers an additional example of a well-thought-out staging of funerary beliefs in the inland region of Naxos. Not only does it illustrate the coexistence of other types of burials in the cemetery, but, alongside the tumuli and their finds, it also demonstrates, through the symbolic package of the grave-offerings and the multifaceted network of interactions they reveal, that inland Naxos participated in the intra- and supra-island circulation of wares and ideas.

The Late Neolithic period in Scandinavia [LN, c. 2350–1700 cal BCE] marks a time of considerable changes in settlement patterns, economy, and material culture. This shift also lays the foundation for the demographic developments in the Early Bronze Age [EBA, c. 1700–1100 cal BCE]. However, little is presently known regarding the developments from these time-periods on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. During the Middle Neolithic period [MN, c. 3300–2350 cal BCE], Gotland was inhabited by groups associated with the Funnel Beaker culture [TRB, c. 4000–2700 cal BCE], and the sub-Neolithic Pitted Ware culture [PWC, c. 3300–2300 cal BCE]. Some indications of connections with the Battle Axe/Corded Ware cultures [BAC/CWC, c. 2800–2300 cal BCE] have also been found, but no typical BAC/CWC burials have been located on the island to date. Here, we investigate the chronological and internal relationship of twenty-three individuals buried in four LN/EBA stone cist burials; Haffinds, Hagur, Suderkvie, and Utalskog on Gotland. We present eleven mitochondrial genomes [from 23 X to 1271 X coverage], and twenty-three new radiocarbon dates, as well as stable isotope data for diet. We examine the local Sr-baseline range for Gotland, and present new Sr-data to discuss mobility patterns of the individuals. The genetic results are compared and discussed in light of earlier cultural periods from Gotland [TRB and PWC], and CWC from the European continent, as well as contemporaneous LN secondary burials in the MN Ansarve dolmen. We find that all burials were used into the EBA, but only two of the cists showed activity already during the LN. We also see some mobility to Gotland during the LN/EBA period based on Strontium and mitochondrial data. We see a shift in the dietary pattern compared to the preceding period on the island [TRB and PWC], and the two LN individuals from the Ansarve dolmen exhibited different dietary and mobility patterns compared to the individuals from the LN/EBA stone cist burials. We find that most of the cist burials were used by individuals local to the area of the burials, with the exception of the large LN/EBA Haffinds cist burial which showed higher levels of mobility. Our modeling of ancestral mitochondrial contribution from chronologically older individuals recovered in the cultural contexts of TRB, PWC and CWC show that the best model is a 55/45 mix of CWC and TRB individuals. A 3-way model with a slight influx from PWC [5%] also had a good fit. This is difficult to reconcile with the current archaeological evidence on the island. We suggest that the maternal CWC/TRB contribution we see in the local LN/EBA individuals derives from migrants after the Scandinavian MN period, which possible also admixed with smaller local groups connected with the PWC. Further genomic analyses of these groups on Gotland will help to clarify the demographic history during the MN to EBA time periods.

M. 71 was one of the graves revealed in the rescue excavations conducted in 2012 at Samurlu 879, one of the eastern necropoleis of Cyme. This tomb was built by placement of a bronze hydria into a square cist designed with stone blocks. Inside the hydria, which was used as an urn, remains of a burned individual were found. In the stone cist, the golden diadem found next to the hydria was an indicator of the ritual performed before the burning of the dead. It is known that this type of burial called Urn-Cist was used in the Aegean cultural environment during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. It could be argued that this type of grave from the Classical Period was quite luxurious compared to other grave types of the period. The bronze hydrias, which were known to have spread in a large geographical area from Italy to the Black Sea, was not found in large amounts in Anatolia. The Cyme Bronze Hydria is the last one found. The examples found in other centers demonstrated that Cyme Bronze Hydria was not produced as a water container, which is its original function, but as an urn (cinerarium) like those of the same kind. The bronze hydria in the Cist is a work of art with the Dionysus-Silenus embossed on it. As a result of stylistic examination of these figures and various comparisons conducted with other archaeological material, Cyme Bronze Hydria was dated to 360-350 BC. Furthermore, the iconographic message of the Dionysus-Silenus on the on hydria is in harmony with the Hellenic belief of the nether world. The Late Classical Period bronze hydria, which was in ruins due to corrosion when it was first found, is now on exhibit in Izmir Archeology Museum after restoration and conservation work.

Human sacrifice has long been associated with the rise of hierarchical centralised societies. Recent excavation of a large cist tomb at third-millennium BC Basur Hoyuk, in Turkey, shows that state formation in Mesopotamia was accompanied by a fundamental change in the value of human life within local ritual economy. Osteological analysis and study of the grave goods have identified some of the dead as human sacrifices. This was indeed a retainer burial, reflecting the emergence of stratified society at a time of instability and crisis.

Iron Age-Early Historic culture in the southern part of Peninsular India is associated with early iron-using society in the region and is renowned for its burial architecture, ritual offerings, ceramics, iron implements and other material culture. The modern state of Kerala in the south-western corner of Peninsular India, while sharing the salient features of this Iron Age-Early Historic culture, exhibits unique types of laterite-made Megalithic burial architecture due to its geographic and physiographic peculiarities. This paper reports the findings from an excavation conducted in 2019 at Enadimangalam in Kerala and its implications for understanding cist burial architecture and burial practices. The excavated cist burial displays the features of a double-chambered cist with cot/bench made of stone slabs. Based on the evidence, the process of the construction of a cist burial is elucidated, and the possible indications of later modification are highlighted. Possibilities of the multiple uses of the same burial structure during the Iron Age-Early Historic period is suggested. The scattered distribution of burial structures in the region of Enadimangalam reflects the presence of smaller settlements and supports the possible multiple uses of the same burial. The importance of considering the landscape and its peculiarities in the further search for habitation evidence is highlighted, particularly in the context of a dearth of habitation evidence connected to the Megalithic burials in Kerala.

During a routine archaeological monitoring visit to the National Trust for Scotland (NTS) property at the House of the Binns in August 2013, human bone was discovered eroding from a small bedrock quarry face. Following investigation by the NTS Archaeology Team this was identified as the remains of two male skeletons from the first centuries bc/ad. Both were buried within a single stone cist, with the remains of one individual (30–50 years old) clearly disturbed during the placement of the second (a young adult). The second individual was placed in a crouched position on his left side and was wearing a penannular brooch on his left shoulder. A significant element of the site is the survival of some extremely rare Iron Age textile upon the brooch.

Skeleton Sk-CV-1 is the first and only human skeleton known from controlled excavations in the Chontal region of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. This approximately 17-year-old female was carefully buried in a stone cist between the 14th and 16th century CE, a time period of great transformations for which there are only a few analyzed skeletons in the State of Oaxaca. The archaeological context and historical documentation associate her with the Chontal people who still inhabit the region, and whose contemporary practices serve as ethnographic analogies for this study. In this article we present the archaeological, osteological, and stable isotope analyses of this unique skeleton, to give a first glimpse into the diseases, activities, and diet of this little known ethnic group and time period.

Collateral phytolith records from four megalith cist burials uncovered at Porunthal on the foot hills of the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, are presented. This has contributed to the current knowledge of the landscape in association with the flora and megalith culture that prevailed in South India during the Early Historic time at 540–410 cal BCE. Evidence shows that Early Historic megalith people engaged less in pastoral activities on the open landscape, dominated by herbs e.g., Cyperaceae and Poaceae, and also by Palmae species in semi-arid environment. The presence of strong mode of settled-paddy and millet farming cultures, cereal-processing activities and grazing in association with the burial practices were significant as early as 6th century BCE. Seeds, leaves and sheath from domesticated rice, millet and some materials from sedges and Palmae species were deliberately deposited indicating variable burial rituals in each grave. Burial tradition indicates that Iron Age and Early Historic megalithic people of southern India may have carried out burial rituals with more rice than millets. Evidence for the early appearance of Brahmi writing as part of the ‘complex’ megalith social life marks the beginning of Early Historic Period, previously not reported in southern Asia. Phytolith evidence also provides new insight into the transformation of urban-fringe landscapes with possible irrigated agriculture in those broad ecological and cultural contexts.

Tez çalışmasında, Apollonia ad Rhyndacum antik kentinin nekropol alanında yürütülen kurtarma kazılarıyla açığa çıkarılan mezarlar içerisinden, yapı malzemesi olarak kerpiç kullanılan 16 örnek konu alınmıştır. Gün ışığına çıkarılan kerpiç mezarların Batı Anadolu ve Marmara Bölgesi'nde bilinmemesi oldukça dikkat çekicidir. Ayrıca bu tür mezarlara ilişkin yapım teknikleri, tipoloji ve köken araştırmasını konu alan bir çalışmanın yapılmaması bizi bu alana yöneltmiştir. Öncelikle mezarların kazı raporları ve yerinde incelenmesiyle teknik analizleri yapılmış, sonrasında gerekli olan harita, çizim ve görsel içeriği oluşturulmuştur. Kütüphane ve online veri tabanlarında, karşılaştığımız farklı mezar formlarına ve üst örtü biçimlerine yönelik literatür taraması yapılmıştır. Araştırma sonucu elde edilen veriler doğrultusunda, benzer örnekler ile birlikte değerlendirilmesiyle mezar tipolojisi belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca köken araştırması yapılarak yayılım alanlarının saptanması sağlanmış, mezarlardaki kerpiç kullanım alanları, hammadde temini, yapısal özellikleri ve yapım teknikleri belirlenmiştir. Son olarak ayrı ayrı ele aldığımız mezar formları ve üst örtü biçimleri incelenerek, tespit edilen yeni mezar tiplerine yönelik isimlendirme önerisinde bulunulmuştur. Mezar yapılarını ve üst örtülerini ayrı ayrı değerlendirdiğimizde, mezarlar üzerinde etkili olan belirgin formlar, `Kerpiç Sanduka, Kerpiç Çatkı/ Kiremit Çatma, Cappuccina` mezar olarak belirlenmiştir. `Kerpiç Sanduka` mezarların çıkış noktası Güney Doğu Anadolu olmak üzere Karkamış, Korucutepe, Hanaytepe, Girnevaz, Alişar, Tepecik ve Oylum Höyük'te açığa çıkarılan örneklerle birlikte Geç Kalkolitik Dönem ve sonrasında Anadolu coğrafyasına yayıldığı bilinmektedir. Sonraki süreçte Erken Tunç Çağı'ndan başayarak Kuzey Suriye'de yer alan Tel Ahmar, Hamam et-Turkman, Orta ve Geç Tunç Çağı'nda ise Mısır'da bulunan Tell el-Retaba ve Tell el-Dab'a gibi yerleşmelerde görülmektedir. Mezarlar üzerinde etkili olan diğer belirgin formun kökeni İtalya olarak saptanmıştır. `Cappuccina` olarak adlandırılan mezarların en yaygın dönemi Roma İmparatorluk Dönemi olsa da Avrupa'daki erken örnekleri MÖ 6.-7. yüzyıla kadar gitmektedir. Basit toprak mezar niteliği taşımaları, özellikle bu tür mezarların fakir sosyal sınıflar tarafından kullanıldığına işaret etmektedir. Roma İmparatorluk Dönemi'nde giderek yaygınlaşan Cappuccina mezarların, İtalya üzerinden Anadolu coğrafyası dâhil olmak üzere birçok Roma eyaletine yayıldığı ve bölge halkları tarafından özümsenerek kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Anadolu'da Klasik Dönem sonrası giderek yaygınlaşan mezar formu genellikle kullanılan malzemeye göre `Kiremit Çatma, Kiremit Çatkı, Plaka Çatkı, Kerpiç Çatkı` olarak bilinmektedir. Açığa çıkardığımız birçok örneğin `Kompozit Mezar` kimliği taşıması farklı ölü gömme geleneklerine ait mezar tiplerinin, taşındığı bölgedeki diğer yaygın mezar formlarıyla birlikte yorumlanarak yeni ve farklı bir anlayışla uygulanabildiğini açıkça göstermektedir. Ayrıca çıkış noktasını ve yayılım alanlarını henüz tespit edemediğimiz bir başka üst örtü biçimi tespit edilmiştir. Bu anlayışa göre sanduka içerisindeki kremasyon bölümü beşik çatı biçiminde değil, doğrudan karşı uzun kenar üzerine uzatılan kerpiç plakalarla mertek çatı biçiminde kapatılmaktadır. Bu sayede mezar zemini ile üst örtüsü arasında üçgen şeklinde bir alan oluşturulmuştur. Form ve kullanılan malzeme göz önünde bulundurularak üst örtü tipi `kerpiç plakalı mertek` mezar olarak isimlendirilmiştir. Sonuç olarak Apollonia Nekropolü'nde kerpiç endüstrisine dayalı altı farklı tipte mezar tespit edilmiş; yapım teknikleri, formları ve üst örtü biçimlerine göre isimlendirme önerileri belirlenmiştir. Mezarlarda isimlendirme, önce tip, sonra üzerinin kapatılma şekli göz önünde bulundurularak yapılmıştır. Açığa çıkarılan mezarlar içerisinde, yalnızca kerpiç malzeme kullanılarak hazırlanan mezarlarda birincil kremasyon uygulanmış ve kronolojik olarak ele alındığında genellikle MÖ 1.-MS 1. yüzyıl aralığında gömü yapıldığı anlaşılmıştır. Basit toprak mezarlarda üst örtü kerpiç malzeme ile beşik çatı biçiminde oluşturulmaktadır. Sanduka mezarlarda ise beşik çatı, mertek çatı, taş kapak veya iki formun birlikte kullanıldığı örnekler karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Yapı malzemesi olarak kerpiç kullanılan örnekleri incelediğimizde kullanım alanlarına ve işlevlerine göre yapım tekniklerinin ve uygulama biçimlerinin değiştiği gözlenmiştir. Mezar yapılarında, üst örtü sistemlerinde ve çevre düzenlemesinde kullanılan kil harç ve kerpiç malzemenin temin ve biçimlendirme yöntemlerinin tespit edilmesine yönelik çalışma yapılmıştır. Bölgede yaptığımız tarama sonucu biri nekropol sınırları içerisinde, diğeri ise Uluabat gölünün kuzeydoğu kıyısında olmak üzere yoğun miktarda rezerve sahip iki kil yatağı saptanmıştır. Kerpiç endüstrisi incelendiğinde kullanılması muhtemel 4 teknik tespit edilmiştir. Kerpiç yapım yöntemleri başlığı altında değerlendirilen yöntemler, pisse tekniği, dövme tekniği, yığma tekniği ve blok tekniği olarak belirlenmiştir. Hazırlanım aşamalarında ise genellikle katkı maddesi olarak kil, su, saman, kum, çakıl, ot, dal gibi malzemeler kullanılmıştır. Son olarak açığa çıkardığımız mezarlar üzerinden, nekropol alanı kerpiç kullanımı bölümünde kerpiç malzemenin uygulama alanları tespit edilmiştir. In this thesis, 16 examples of graves where mudbrick were used as building materials were examined among the graves uncovered by rescue excavations carried out in the necropolis area of the ancient city of Apollonia ad Rhyndacum. It is remarkable that the mudbrick graves unearthed in the light of day are not known in Western Anatolia and Marmara Region. In addition, the lack of a study on the construction techniques, typology, and origin research on such graves directed us to this area. First of all, the technical analysis of the tombs was carried out by means of excavation reports and on-site examination, and then the necessary maps, drawings and visual contents were created. In the library and online databases, the literature was searched for the different grave forms and coverings we encountered. In accordance with the data obtained from the research, grave typology was determined by evaluating with similar samples. In addition to this, the distribution areas were determined by using the root research, and the usage areas of mudbrick, supply of raw materials, structural properties and construction techniques were determined. Finally, by examining the grave forms and the top cover types we have discussed separately, a nomenclature was proposed for the new grave types identified. When we evaluate the grave structures and their top covers separately, the distinctive forms that affect the graves are identified as `mudbrick cist` and `Cappuccina` graves.It is known that the `mudbrick cist` graves were spread to the Late Chalcolithic Period and later in Anatolia during the Late Chalcolithic Period, with examples unearthed in Carchemish, Korucutepe, Hanaytepe, Girnevaz, Alişar, Tepecik and Oylum Höyük. Later, on Tel Ahmar in northern Syria, Hamam et-Turkman, in the Middle and Late Bronze Age in Egypt, such as Tell el-Retaba and Tell al-Dab'a settlements these tombs are seen starting from the Early Bronze Age. The origins of other prominent form on the tombs has been determined as Italy. Although the most common period of the tombs called `Cappuccina` was the Roman Imperial Period, the early examples in Europe were dated to the 6th-7th centuries BC. century. Their simple soil burial characteristics indicate that such graves are used by poor social classes. The Cappuccina tombs, which became increasingly widespread during the Roman Imperial Period, were spread to many Roman provinces, including the Anatolian geography, and were used and assimilated by the peoples of the region. Many of the examples we have uncovered bear the `composite grave` identity, which clearly demonstrates that different types of burial traditions can be interpreted together with other common grave forms in the region where they are moved and applied with a new and different understanding. In addition, another form of top cover has been identified in which we cannot determine the exit point and spreading areas. According to this understanding, the cremation section in the coffer is not covered with a barrel roof but rather as a rafter roof with mudbrick plates extending directly on the opposite long edge. Thus, a triangular area was formed between the ground floor and the top cover. Considering the form and material used, the top cover type was named as `single sided mudbrick slab roof grave`.As a result, six different types of tombs based on the mudbrick industry were identified in the Apollonia Necropolis and naming proposals were determined according to the construction techniques, forms and forms of the top cover. The nomenclature in the graves was made by considering first the type and then the way it was covered. Among the uncovered tombs, primary cremation was applied only to the graves prepared using mudbrick material, and when chronologically considered, it was found that burials were generally made in the 1st century AD. ın simple earthen graves, the top cover is formed as a cradle roof with mudbrick material. In the cist graves, there are examples of cradle roof, rafter roof, stone cover or two forms used together. When we examined the examples of mudbrick used as a building material, it was observed that the construction techniques and application methods changed according to their usage areas and functions. The study was carried out to determine the methods of supply and shaping of clay mortar and mudbrick materials used in grave structures, top cover systems and landscaping. As a result of the survey we conducted in the region, two clay beds have high reserves were found, one in the necropolis and the other on the northeastern shore of Lake Uluabat. When the mudbrick industry was examined, four possible techniques were identified. The methods evaluated under the title of mudbrick construction methods were determined as pisse technique, forging technique, masonry technique and block technique. Generally, materials such as clay, water, straw, sand, gravel, grass and twigs were used as additives. Finally, over the graves we uncovered, the application areas of the mudbrick material were determined in the mudbrick usage section of the necropolis area. 166

Se presentan los resultados obtenidos en la excavación arqueológica realizada en la zona norte y al exterior de la iglesia de Santa María del Castillo de Calatañazor (Soria). Comprendidas entre los siglos XI y XVII y con una gran variedad en la tipología de los enterramientos, se identificaron cinco fases: tumbas rupestres antropomorfas (ss. XI-XIII), en cista (ss. XIII-XVI), en fosa (ss. XV-XVI), una capilla lateral con un sarcófago asociado (s. XVI), en fosa (ss. XVI-XVII). En cuanto al ritual, destaca la práctica, sostenida en el tiempo, de colocar monedas en las manos de los difuntos, con el hallazgo de cincuenta y dos piezas. Además, destacan los hallazgos de una reducción ritual de restos, integrada por ocho cráneos superpuestos en dos hiladas y acompañados por dos jarritas de cerámica pintada del siglo XIII, y de un resto humano, enterrado en decúbito prono The results obtained in the archaeological excavation carried out in the northern zone outside the church of Santa María del Castillo de Calatañazor (Soria) are presented. Five phases were identified, between the eleventh and seventeenth centuries, with a great variety of burials: anthropomorphic rock tombs (11th-13th centuries), cist tomb (13th- -16th centuries), pit tomb (15th-16th centuries), side chapel and associated sarcophagus (16th century), pit tomb (16th-17th centuries). As for the ritual, it highlights the practice, sustained over time, of placing coins in the hands of the deceased, with the discovery of fifty-two coins. In addition, the excavation features the discovery of a ritual reduction of remains composed of eight skulls superimposed in two courses and accompanied by two jars of thirteenth century painted pottery and remains buried in prone position

While Marcel Mauss's landmark essay onThe Gifthas been vital in social anthropology, inspiring a vast and influential secondary literature, the gift has been much less prominent in archaeological interpretation. This study considers evidence for an ancient Andean gift economy, a system of reciprocal exchanges focused on making people and ensuring group social relations, rather than accumulating wealth/capital. Excavations at Yayno (north highlands, Ancash, Peru) revealed two features dating to the time of the Inkas: 1) a slab-lined cist burial; and 2) an offering deposit containing abundant long-distance trade and sumptuary items. Besides its mountaintop location, the burial's intrusive character and foreign items indicate that the offerings were made to propitiate the place, ruins and their divine aspect. This essay studies the reciprocal acts that led to the offerings, comparing them to gifting patterns in Inka human sacrifices known ascapac hucha.The key actors in the exchange were children, divinities, Inka bureaucrats, local leaders and state subjects.

Let T 1 , T 2 , … , T k be k spanning trees of the graph G . They are called completely independent spanning trees (CISTs for short) if the paths joining every pair of vertices x and y in any two trees have neither vertex nor edge in common, except for x and y . In particular, two CISTs are called a dual-CIST. The construction of a dual-CIST in a network has applications in the fault-tolerance of data transmission and the establishment of a protection routing. It has been proved that determining if a graph G admits a dual-CIST is NP-complete. In this paper, we show the existence of a dual-CIST in the n -dimensional shuffle-cube S Q n with n = 4 k + 2 and k ≥ 1 . Furthermore, recursive construction algorithms for the dual-CIST in S Q n are given.