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Transfusion-related immunomodulation consists of both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses after transfusion of blood products. Stored red blood cells (RBCs) suppress human T-cell proliferation in vitro, but the mechanism remains unknown. We hypothesized that cytokine synthesis by T cells may be inhibited when stored RBCs are present and that suppression between fresh and stored RBCs would be different.Purified human T cells were stimulated to proliferate with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 and then exposed to stored or fresh RBCs. Cells were placed in culture for 5 days. Cell culture supernatants were analyzed for the production of typical T-cell cytokines using multianalyte ELISArray kits.Stimulated T cells proliferated. RBC exposure markedly suppressed this proliferation. Interleukin 10, interleukin 17a, interferon γ, tumor necrosis factor α, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor were increased in response to stimulation but depressed in the presence of stored RBCs. The use of fresh RBCs also resulted in depression of these cytokines when compared with stimulated T cells with no RBCs; however, this depression was less pronounced.T-cell activation is associated with both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine release, comparable with patterns seen in trauma and acute injury. All of these responses are depressed by an exposure to stored RBCs. Decreased levels of these cytokines after RBC transfusion represents a potential contributor to the immunosuppressive complications seen in trauma patients after transfusion. This provides insight for future mechanistic studies to delineate the role of RBC transfusion in transfusion-related immunomodulation.

Background Red blood cells (RBCs) suppress T-cell responsiveness through a mechanism requiring cell–cell contact. Questions remain as to whether this effect is an allogeneic response, related to cell death, or dependent on particular components of the RBCs. Study Design and Methods Peripheral T cells were isolated from healthy donors and exposed to stored allogeneic RBCs or autologous RBCs after processing. RBCs were lysed by hypotonic solvent to produce cellular ghosts. Tritiated thymidine proliferation assays were utilized. Cultures were saturated with interleukin (IL)-2 to determine whether impaired IL-2 synthesis played a role. Results T-cell proliferation was suppressed by both autologous and allogeneic RBCs. RBC membrane integrity does enhance T-cell suppression. T-cell death is not responsible for the suppressive changes. IL-2 synthesis is suppressed in RBC-exposed T cells but addition of exogenous IL-2 does not rescue proliferative capabilities. Proliferation of T cells was inhibited with RBC exposure but mitigated with the addition of fresh RBCs. Conclusions T-cell suppression is enhanced by intact RBCs but this effect is unrelated solely to alloantigens. Neither apoptosis nor necrosis of T cells contributes to this phenomenon. IL-2 synthesis is suppressed after RBC exposure as a consequence of T-cell inhibition, but is not the primary cause of suppression. Fresh RBCs do not mediate T-cell suppression, indicating that changes in the RBC and development of the storage lesion may occur during initial blood bank processing.

Transfusion of packed red blood cells (RBCs) produces a myriad of immunologic derangements, from suppressive to stimulatory. Proliferation of human T cells is suppressed in vitro after exposure to processed red blood cells (PRBCs). We hypothesized that this effect would be mitigated by using fresh RBCs. We also hypothesized that this suppressive effect was a generalized effect on lymphocyte proliferation and would be observed in both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell subpopulations as well as B cells.We isolated human T cells from donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells and exposed them to either blood bank PRBCs or fresh RBCs from volunteer donors and stimulated them with anti-CD3/anti-CD28. Human B cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide and exposed to PRBCs or fresh RBCs. We measured proliferation of B cells by thymidine incorporation assays. We also treated RBCs with citrate-phosphate-dextrose (CPD) at different time points before culture them with stimulated T cells to determine the role of this common RBC storage solution in lymphocyte proliferation.In vitro proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was suppressed by blood bank RBCs. This suppression is eliminated when fresh RBCs were used. The B cells showed inhibition of proliferation when exposed to similar conditions, which appeared to be consistent over serial dilutions. Fresh RBCs exposed to CPD did not appear suppressive in the first 6 h after exposure.T-cell and B-cell proliferation inhibition by blood banked RBCs suggests a generalized effect of RBCs on cellular proliferation. The lack of suppression by fresh RBCs further suggests that something involved in blood banking alters RBC properties such that they attain a suppressive phenotype. One such blood banking component, CPD, does not appear to affect this suppressive phenotype within the first 6 h.

Packed red blood cell (PRBC) transfusion suppresses immunity and increases morbidity and mortality. Leukocyte reduction has failed to abrogate these effects, thus implicating red blood cells themselves or their components. PRBC impair proliferation of immortal (Jurkat) T cells by depleting arginine from the extracellular environment. The effect of PRBC on isolated ex vivo T-cell proliferation has not been reported. We hypothesize that PRBCs depress mitogen-stimulated proliferation in isolated human and mouse T cells.Human peripheral T cells were isolated by Ficoll-Hypaque gradient, purified by magnetic separation, and stimulated with anti-CD3 or anti-CD28. DO11.10 transgenic mouse splenic T cells were stimulated with ovalbumin. Cells were cultured at 1 x 10(6)/mL in 96-well plates or in 24-transwell plates in the presence of PRBC (0.015-5% by volume, stored for 4-6 weeks). In culture media, arginine and citrulline were varied. Proliferation was measured at 72 hours by thymidine incorporation. T-cell viability, apoptosis, and receptor zeta chain were measured by flow cytometry.PRBC significantly depressed human peripheral and mouse splenic T-cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. PRBC arginase blockade by N-omega-hydroxy-nor-l-arginine only partly restored proliferation. Cell contact was required in both cell types for maximal effect. Depressed zeta chain in human peripheral T cells was partly restored by arginase blockade. Salvage by high-dose arginine and citrulline was unsuccessful. Decreased proliferation was not related to cell death.PRBC suppresses mitogen-stimulated human and antigen-stimulated mouse T-cell proliferation by mechanisms independent of arginine depletion. This is a novel mechanism for transfusion-associated immune suppression.

Red blood cells (RBCs) suppress T-cell responsiveness through a mechanism requiring cell-cell contact. Questions remain as to whether this effect is an allogeneic response, related to cell death, or dependent on particular components of the RBCs.Peripheral T cells were isolated from healthy donors and exposed to stored allogeneic RBCs or autologous RBCs after processing. RBCs were lysed by hypotonic solvent to produce cellular ghosts. Tritiated thymidine proliferation assays were utilized. Cultures were saturated with interleukin (IL)-2 to determine whether impaired IL-2 synthesis played a role.T-cell proliferation was suppressed by both autologous and allogeneic RBCs. RBC membrane integrity does enhance T-cell suppression. T-cell death is not responsible for the suppressive changes. IL-2 synthesis is suppressed in RBC-exposed T cells but addition of exogenous IL-2 does not rescue proliferative capabilities. Proliferation of T cells was inhibited with RBC exposure but mitigated with the addition of fresh RBCs.T-cell suppression is enhanced by intact RBCs but this effect is unrelated solely to alloantigens. Neither apoptosis nor necrosis of T cells contributes to this phenomenon. IL-2 synthesis is suppressed after RBC exposure as a consequence of T-cell inhibition, but is not the primary cause of suppression. Fresh RBCs do not mediate T-cell suppression, indicating that changes in the RBC and development of the storage lesion may occur during initial blood bank processing.

Background: Transfusion of packed red blood cells (PRBCs) is associated with morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms are not fully understood. Packed red blood cells deplete extracellular arginine and possess transporters for arginine, an amino acid essential for normal immunity. We hypothesize that the membrane yþ amino acid transporter contributes to arginine depletion in PRBCs. Materials and methods: We titrated PRBCs to a 10% hematocrit with phosphate-buffered saline, blocked PRBC yþ transporters using n-ethylmaleimide (0.2 mM), and measured arginine and ornithine levels using liquid chromatographyemass spectroscopy. We added radiolabeled L-arginine [4,5- 3 H] (10 mmol/L) added to similar culture conditions and measured arginine uptake in counts per minute (CPM). We examined storage periods of 6e 9d , 1e4 wk, and 6 wk, and correlated donor demographics with arginine uptake. Results: n-Ethylmaleimide blockade of yþ transporters impaired PRBC arginine depletion from culture media (117.6 � 8.6 mM versus 76.9 � 5.8 mM; P < 0.001) and reduced intracellular L-arginine (7,574 � 955 CPM versus 18,192 � 1,376 CPM; P < 0.01). Arginine depletion increased with storage duration (1 wk versus 6 wk; P < 0.002). With n-ethylmaleimide treatment, 6-wk-old PRBCs preserved more culture arginine (P < 0.008) than at shorter durations. Nine-day storage duration increased L-arginine uptake compared with 6- to 8-day storage (n ¼ 77, R ¼ 0.225, P < 0.05). Extracellular arginine depletion and extracellular ornithine synthesis varied among donors and correlated inversely (R ¼� 0.5, P ¼ 0.01). Conclusions: Membrane yþ transporters are responsible for arginine depletion by PRBCs. Membrane yþ activity increases with storage duration. Arginine uptake varies among donors. Membrane biology of RBCs may have a role in the negative clinical effects associated with PRBC transfusion.

Background Transfusion of packed red blood cells (PRBC) suppresses immunity, but the mechanisms are incompletely understood. PRBCs contain arginase, an enzyme which converts arginine to ornithine and depletes arginine in vitro. Arginine depletion suppresses proliferation of Jurkat T cells in other models. We hypothesize that PRBC arginase-mediated arginine depletion will suppress proliferation of T cells. Methods A transfusion model was designed adding PRBC to culture RPMI media with or without an irreversible arginase blocker (nor-NOHA), incubating for 6–48 hours and then removing the PRBCs. Amino acid concentrations in the media were measured using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. T cells were then added to the pre-conditioned media, cultured for 24 hours, and proliferation was measured. Results PRBC depleted arginine significantly and increased ornithine in media compared to baseline PRBC treated wells and significantly decreased T cell proliferation. These effects were enhanced with volume of PRBC exposure. Nor-NOHA inhibition of arginase restored T cell proliferation in PRBC treated cultures. Conclusions Jurkat T cell proliferation was impaired by PRBC in clinically relevant volumes. The mechanism influencing T cell impairment appears to result from arginine depletion by arginase. Arginine depletion by PRBC arginase may be a novel mechanism for immunosuppression after transfusion.

INTRODUCTION: Arginine is depleted in the plasma of patients with the SIRS, sepsis, and trauma, and arginine repletion through nutritional support reduces infection and mortality. The mechanism of arginine hypercatabolism is incompletely understood. Arginase I, a urea cycle enzyme which converts arginine to ornithine and urea, depletes arginine and impairs T-lymphocyte function in vitro. Though peripheral blood monocytes (PBMs) lack a complete urea cycle, we have shown PBM arginase I over-expression in injured patients coinciding with arginine depletion. We hypothesize that increased PBM arginase expression and concomitant arginine depletion occur in non-traumatic SIRS.