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Tibialis anterior (TA) muscle has frequently been used for scientific experiments, particularly for muscle contractile assays, because of its anatomical advantages. However, classical evaluation methods for the TA muscle, such as EMG and force transducer, require experimental skills to acquire reliable results. Furthermore, because sacrificing experimental animals is usually indispensable for both methods, sequential observations cannot be performed. Therefore, developing a simple, objective, and animal friendly evaluation system was warranted. In this article, we introduce a novel, simple, and noninvasive in vivo evaluation method for the TA muscle called the toe-lift test (TLT), which is not only easy to perform but also capable of detecting contractile strength precisely. Because the TLT does not require experimental animal sacrifice, performing assessments over time, such as in sequential observation, is possible. This novel method represents a solution to the need for a simple, noninvasive, and effective method for TA muscle contractile evaluation.

This study examined the relationships between children’s mobile gaming preferences, online risks, and mental health. Data were obtained from a sample of 2,702 third and fourth grade students from 16 elementary schools in Taiwan and 9 schools in China. A self-administered questionnaire was used. The mental state of the children who participated in the study was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), while mobile gaming addiction was assessed using the short form of the Internet Gaming Disorders Scale (IGDS9-SF). The results showed that about 54% of children played mobile games with others (multi-player), while 31% played mobile games alone, and 15% did not play mobile games. Multiple logistic regression results indicated that behaviors such as participating in multi-player games, playing violent games, a poor parent-child relationship, and living in a rural area were associated with a greater risk of mobile gaming addiction. Involvement in multi-player games, playing violent games, mobile gaming addiction, and exposure to mobile violence/pornography were associated with greater risks of cyber aggression/victimization. Multiple regression results showed that being a multi-player, playing violent games, mobile gaming addiction, exposure to violence/pornography, exposure to cyber aggression/victimization, and having a poor parent-child relationship were associated with emotional and behavioral problems.

Satellite cells, a population of skeletal muscular stem cells, are generally recognized as the main and, possibly, the sole source of postnatal muscle regeneration. Previous studies have revealed the potential of low-level laser (LLL) irradiation in promoting satellite cell proliferation, which, thereby, boosts the recovery of skeletal muscle from atrophy. The purpose of this study is to investigate the beneficial effect of LLL on disuse-induced atrophy. The optimal irradiation condition of LLL (808 nm) enhancing the proliferation of Pax7+ve cells, isolated from tibialis anterior (TA) muscle, was examined and applied on TA muscle of disuse-induced atrophy model of the rats accordingly. Healthy rats were used as the control. On one hand, transiently, LLL was able to postpone the progression of atrophy for 1 week through a reduction of apoptosis in Pax7−veMyoD+ve (myocyte) population. Simultaneously, a significant enhancement was observed in Pax7+veMyoD+ve population; however, most of the increased cells underwent apoptosis since the second week, which suggested an impaired maturation of the population. On the other hand, in normal control rats with LLL irradiation, a significant increase in Pax7+veMyoD+ve cells and a significant decrease of apoptosis were observed. As a result, a strengthened muscle contraction was observed. Our data showed the capability of LLL in postponing the progression of disuse-induced atrophy for the first time. Furthermore, the result of normal rats with LLL irradiation showed the effectiveness of LLL to strengthen muscle contraction in healthy control.

Background/purpose: To assess the long-term neurodevelopmental outcome of normal-term neonates who were accidentally found to exhibit subependymal pseudocysts (SEPCs), frontal horn cysts, or choroid plexus cysts through cranial ultrasound (CUS) examination in a neonatal health examination. Methods: In total, 5569 neonates received CUS examination as an item in a health examination during the first week of birth between 2002 and 2012. Among them, 5147 infants fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The participants were aged between 5 and 15 years at the time when the data were collected. We retrospectively collected these data and interpreted their statistical significance by using one-way analysis of variance, Chi-square test with Yate's correction and odds ratios. Results: The presence of SEPCs was significantly correlated with developmental delay and developmental disability, particularly with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). The risk of ADHD or ASD was significantly higher in participants with multiple SEPCs, among whom the odds ratios for ADHD and ASD were 6.50 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.27–18.64) and 28.54 (95% CI = 5.98–136.36), respectively, higher than those for the total study population. Conclusion: Our data revealed multiple SEPCs in normal-term neonates as a risk factor for neurobehavioral outcome, particularly in ADHD and ASD. Simultaneously, the utility of CUS examination as a health examination item for neonates was confirmed. Keywords: Multiple subependymal pseudocysts, Normal-full term neonates, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Autistic spectrum disorder

Background Ganoderma sp., such as Ganoderma tsugae (GT), play an important role in traditional Chinese medicine. Ganoderma sp. contains several constituents, including Sacacchin, which has recently drawn attention because it can not only enhance the repair of muscle damage but also strengthen the muscle enforcement. Although Ganoderma sp. have a therapeutic effect for neuromuscular disorders, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study investigated the effect and underlying molecular mechanism of micronized sacchachitin (mSC) on satellite cells (SCs), which are known as the muscle stem cells. Methods The myogenic cells, included SCs (Pax7+) were isolated from tibialis anterior muscles of a healthy rat and were cultured in growth media with different mSC concentrations. For the evaluation of SC proliferation, these cultivated cells were immunostained with Pax7 and bromodeoxyuridine assessed simultaneously. The molecular signal pathway was further investigated by using Western blotting and signal pathway inhibitors. Results Our data revealed that 200 µg/mL mSC had an optimal capability to significantly enhance the SC proliferation. Furthermore, this enhancement of SC proliferation was verified to be involved with activation of TAK1-JNK-AP-1 signaling pathway through TLR2, whose expression on SC surface was confirmed for the first time here. Conclusion Micronized sacchachitin extracted from GT was capable of promoting the proliferation of SC under a correct concentration.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the response of satellite cells to muscular atrophies which possess different pathological characteristics and which were induced by distinct damages. Right lower limbs of rats were exposed to denervation or disuse and later its tibialis anterior (TA) or soleus (SOL) muscles were analyzed. After confirming their functional impairments indicated by common but distinct pathological and electrophysiological characteristics, the quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of Pax7 and Pax3 expressions and the number of Pax7+ve and Pax3+ve cells were analyzed sequentially at day 0, day 7, and day 14. TA muscles of both denervation- and disuse-induced atrophy models showed persisted low level of Pax7 expression from day 7 (0.91 ± 0.23 and 0.31 ± 0.07, P = 0.06, n = 6) through day 14 (1.09 ± 0.15 and 0.4 ± 0.09 [P < 0.05]). On the other hand, significant elevations were observed in Pax3 expression in both atrophy models (2.73 ± 0.46 and 2.75 ± 0.26 [P < 0.05]) at day 7. Similar to TA muscle, resembled pattern of Pax7 and Pax3 expression changes were observed between the SOL muscles of denervation- and disused-atrophy models. These trends were further confirmed by the changes in Pax7+ve and Pax3+ve cell numbers of TA and SOL muscles in both atrophy models. Despite the distinct pathological findings, similar patterns in the changes of Pax3 and Pax7 expressions and the changes of Pax7+ve and Pax3+ve cell numbers were observed between the denervation- and disuse-induced atrophy models and this commonality was admitted among the muscle type. Therefore, we claim that the muscle regeneration orchestrated by satellite cells was governed by the muscle type in which satellite cells reside.

Background Ganoderma sp., such as Ganoderma tsugae (GT), play an important role in traditional Chinese medicine. Ganoderma sp. contains several constituents, including Sacacchin, which has recently drawn attention because it can not only enhance the repair of muscle damage but also strengthen the muscle enforcement. Although Ganoderma sp. have a therapeutic effect for neuromuscular disorders, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study investigated the effect and underlying molecular mechanism of micronized sacchachitin (mSC) on satellite cells (SCs), which are known as the muscle stem cells. Methods The myogenic cells, included SCs (Pax7+) were isolated from tibialis anterior muscles of a healthy rat and were cultured in growth media with different mSC concentrations. For the evaluation of SC proliferation, these cultivated cells were immunostained with Pax7 and bromodeoxyuridine assessed simultaneously. The molecular signal pathway was further investigated by using Western blotting and signal pathway inhibitors. Results Our results revealed that 200 µg/mL mSC had an optimal capability to significantly enhance the SC proliferation. Furthermore, this enhancement of SC proliferation was verified to be involved with activation of TAK1-JNK-AP-1 signaling pathway through TLR2, whose expression on SC surface was confirmed for the first time here. Conclusion Micronized sacchachitin extracted from GT was capable of promoting the proliferation of SC under a correct concentration.

Additional file 1. Ganoderma tsugae (GT) extraction, physical analysis and rheological measurement of mSC.

Despite remarkable advancements in modern medicine, muscular atrophy remains as an unsolved problem. It is well known that pathological characteristics of different atrophy types could vary according to the pathophysiological causes. In fact, the lesion of atrophy is not always homogenously distributed but often predominantly evident in either fast or slow myofibers. As the focalization of the atrophic lesions, the existence and the functional impairment of each fast and slow progenitor/satellite cell (SC) are suspected though there are still controversies about this hypothesis. In this study, we isolated Pax7 positive (Pax7+ve) SCs from the tibia anterior (fast) and soleus (slow) muscles respectively and successfully demonstrated, for the first time, the difference between optimal exposure durations of photobiomodulation (PBM) which was known as low level laser irradiation (LLLI) in promoting proliferation of Pax7+ve SC which were acquired from fast and slow muscles respectively. Moreover, a hypertrophy-accompanied bidirectional change in myofiber composition with neuromuscular junction alteration, either from slow to fast or fast to slow, were achieved by applying different PBM durations. Simultaneously, PBM exhibited a synergistic effect with muscle exercise on the increase in myofiber size. Our data suggested the existence of at least two different populations of Pax7+ve SC which possess distinct sensitivities towards PBM. As our data revealed the capability of PBM in bidirectional changes of skeletal muscle composition and neuromuscular junction constitution thereby strengthen its contractility through altering the irradiation condition, we believe PBM showed the potential to be as a promising clinical treatment for muscular atrophy.