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Observational data inherently contain noise which manifests as uncertainties in the measured parameters and creates positive biases or noise floors in second‐order products like variances, fluxes, and spectra. Historical methods estimate and subsequently subtract noise floors, but struggle with accuracy. Gardner and Chu (2020, doi.org/10.1364/AO.400375) proposed an interleaved data processing method, which inherently eliminates biases from variances and fluxes, and suggested that the method could also eliminate noise floors of power spectra. We investigate the interleaved method for spectral analysis of atmospheric waves through theoretical studies, forward modeling, and demonstration with lidar data. Our work shows that calculating the cross‐power spectral density (CPSD) from two interleaved subsamples does reduce the spectral noise floor significantly. However, only the Co‐PSD (the real part of CPSD) eliminates the noise floor completely, while taking the absolute magnitude of CPSD adds a reduced noise floor back to the spectrum when the sample number is finite. This reduced noise floor can be further minimized through averaging over more observations, completely different from traditional spectrum calculations whose noise floor cannot be reduced by incorporating more samples. We demonstrate the first application of the interleaved method to spectral data, successfully eliminating the noise floor using the Co‐PSD in a forward model and in lidar observations of the vertical wavenumber of gravity waves at McMurdo, Antarctica. This high accuracy is gained by sacrificing precision due to photon‐count splitting, requiring additional observations to counter this effect. We provide quantitative assessment of accuracy and precision as well as application recommendations. Plain Language Summary: Atmospheric waves serve a vital role in global energy and momentum transportation between the lower and upper atmosphere, driving major atmospheric circulations. These waves exist across many scales, from large planetary waves to medium‐ and small‐scale gravity waves (GW). GW are a key factor driving many atmospheric phenomena, but due to their relatively smaller scales, they are difficult to study. The spectra of GW are important to understanding wave dynamics and informing the development of atmospheric models, as these spectra contain critical information about how wave‐transported energy is distributed amongst different temporal and spatial frequencies. A major tool in improving our knowledge and modeling of GW is their direct observations. Although being powerful wave observation tools, lidar and radar data contain noise in their measurements which manifests as noise floors, obscuring derived wave power spectra. These floors cannot be removed by averaging more samples, as is done for other parameters, making it difficult to accurately interpret the spectra. Pre‐existing techniques can remove this floor, but they struggle with accuracy, especially in high‐noise conditions. This study introduces and demonstrates the use of an interleaved method of spectral processing, which eliminates the noise floors altogether, enabling high‐accuracy calculation of wave spectra. Key Points: We develop an interleaved data processing technique to compute cross‐power spectral density (CPSD) for deriving unbiased wave spectraAccuracy and precision analyses of coincident‐power spectral density (Co‐PSD) and CPSD magnitude show Co‐PSD eliminating noise floor entirelyThe spectral interleaved method is shown to eliminate noise floor, demonstrated using a forward model and Antarctic lidar observations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discovery of the thermosphere-ionosphere Fe (TIFe) layers has opened a door to exploring the least understood thermosphere and ionosphere region between 100 and 200 km with ground-based lidar instruments. The characteristics of the polar TIFe layers, and the impacts of the atmosphere neutral dynamics, electrodynamics, and metallic chemistry on the formation of TIFe layers deserve further investigation, especially the diurnal cycles of TIFe layers observed by lidar. This paper aims at investigating the major driving forces with 1-D Thermosphere-Ionosphere Fe/Fe+ (TIFe) model. A main question to answer is whether neutral dynamics like tidal winds or electrodynamics like the convection electric fields and currents in the magnetosphere and ionosphere are responsible for the diurnal cycle of TIFe layers.

We report a world record of lidar profiling of metallic Ca+ ions up to 300 km in the midlatitude nighttime ionosphere during geomagnetic quiet time. Ca+ measurements (∼80–300 km) were made over Beijing (40.42°N, 116.02°E) with an Optical‐Parametric‐Oscillator‐based lidar from March 2020 through June 2021. Main Ca+ layers (80–100 km) persist through all nights, and high‐density sporadic Ca+ layers (∼100–120 km) frequently occur in summer. Thermosphere‐ionosphere Ca+ (TICa+) layers (∼110–300 km) are likely formed via Ca+ uplifting from these sporadic layers. The lidar observations capture the complete evolution of TICa+ layers from onset to ending, revealing intriguing features. Concurrent ionosonde measurements show strong sporadic E layers developed before TICa+ and spread F onset. Neutral winds can partially account for observed vertical transport but enhanced electric fields are required to explain the results. Such lidar observations promise new insights into E‐ and F‐region coupling and plasma inhomogeneities. Plain Language Summary: Inhomogeneities (also called irregularities) in the ionospheric plasma distribution can significantly degrade satellite communications and negatively impact Global Positioning System‐based navigation systems that rely on the trans‐ionospheric radio‐wave propagation. Understanding the formation mechanisms of, thus predicting, ionospheric inhomogeneities is still a huge challenge in space weather research. Long‐lived meteoric metal ions (≫ $\gg $1 day above 100 km altitude) converge to form dense ion layers, causing plasma irregularities in the ionosphere. Therefore, it is imperative to observe and understand the transport and formation of metallic ion layers. However, it is technically challenging to detect specific ion species, especially tracing ion transport over large vertical ranges and time durations. Numerous instruments detect electron density but cannot distinguish ion species. Rocket‐borne mass spectrometers can distinguish ion species but provide only snapshots. Lidars provide a powerful tool to profile and trace metallic species over extended periods by exciting specific resonance fluorescence. The only metal ions detectable by ground‐based lidars are Ca+, and previous lidar measurements reached ∼180 km. Our Ca+ lidar upgraded with narrowband lasers has achieved high detection sensitivity, enabling the Ca+ profiling up to 300 km. Such lidar measurements of dynamical Ca+ layers open a new window to study plasma irregularities. Key Points: First lidar profiling of Ca+ ions from ∼80 to 300 km was made over Beijing in the nighttime ionosphere during geomagnetic quiet timeThermosphere‐ionosphere Ca+ layers (∼10 s cm−3) are likely formed by uplifting ions from sporadic Ca+ at ∼110 km & show complex structuresSpread F occurs concurrently with Thermosphere‐ionosphere Ca+ & strong sporadic E layers occur before the onset of TICa+ and spread F, suggesting E‐ and F‐region coupling [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An incoherent Doppler wind lidar based on iodine edge filters has been developed at the Ocean University of China for remote measurements of atmospheric wind fields. The lidar is compact enough to fit in a minivan for mobile deployment. With its sophisticated and user-friendly data acquisition and analysis system (DAAS), this lidar has made a variety of line-of-sight (LOS) wind measurements in different operational modes. Through carefully developed data retrieval procedures, various wind products are provided by the lidar, including wind profile, LOS wind velocities in plan position indicator (PPI) and range height indicator (RHI) modes, and sea surface wind. Data are processed and displayed in real time, and continuous wind measurements have been demonstrated for as many as 16 days. Full-azimuth-scanned wind measurements in PPI mode and full-elevation-scanned wind measurements in RHI mode have been achieved with this lidar. The detection range of LOS wind velocity PPI and RHI reaches 8-10 km at night and 6-8 km during daytime with range resolution of 10 m and temporal resolution of 3 min. In this paper, we introduce the DAAS architecture and describe the data retrieval methods for various operation modes. We present the measurement procedures and results of LOS wind velocities in PPI and RHI scans along with wind profiles obtained by Doppler beam swing. The sea surface wind measured for the sailing competition during the 2008 Beijing Olympics is also presented. The precision and accuracy of wind measurements are estimated through analysis of the random errors associated with photon noise and the systematic errors introduced by the assumptions made in data retrieval. The three assumptions of horizontal homogeneity of atmosphere, close-to-zero vertical wind, and uniform sensitivity are made in order to experimentally determine the zero wind ratio and the measurement sensitivity, which are important factors in LOS wind retrieval. Deviations may occur under certain meteorological conditions, leading to bias in these situations. Based on the error analyses and measurement results, we point out the application ranges of this Doppler lidar and propose several paths for future improvement. [c] 2010 Optical Society of America OCIS codes: 280.3640, 170.3340, 300.6320.

A method is proposed for determining the optimal temperature and magnetic field strength used to condition a sodium vapor cell for use in a sodium Double-Edge Magneto-Optic Filter (Na-DEMOF). The desirable characteristics of these filters are first defined and then analyzed over a range of temperatures and magnetic field strengths, using an IDL Faraday filter simulation adapted for the Na-DEMOF. This simulation is then compared to real behavior of a Na-DEMOF constructed for use with the Chu Research Group’s STAR Na Doppler resonance-fluorescence lidar for lower atmospheric observations.

McMurdo station (77.8°S, 166.7°E), locating at the poleward edge of the auroral oval, provides great opportunities for researchers to study the interactions among neutral atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere. More than four years of valuable data have been collected, leading to several new discoveries from the McMurdo lidar campaign. Presented here are the winter temperature tides and their responses to the magnetospheric sources. Winter temperature structures from the lidar observations are also presented for this high southern latitude.

We present the first coordinated study of a 1-h mesoscale gravity wave event detected simultaneously by a Na Doppler lidar at Boulder, CO (40.1°N, 105.2°W), and a Na Doppler lidar and an airglow temperature mapper (AMTM) at Logan, UT (41.7°N, 111.8°W) in the mesopause region on 27 Nov. 2013. The vertical and horizontal wavelengths are ~16.0±0.3 and 342.0±10.4 km, corresponding to vertical and horizontal phase speeds of ~4.4±0.1 and 95.0±3.0 m/s, respectively. The wave propagates from Logan to Boulder with an azimuth angle of ~138.1±1.7° clockwise from North. A uniqueness of this study is that the 1-h wave amplitudes on vertical winds have been quantified for the first time by the STAR Na lidar at Boulder. The GW polarization relation between vertical wind and temperature is evaluated. The intrinsic period of the wave is Doppler shifted to ~100 min by a background wind of 40 m/s, which is confirmed by USU lidar wind observations. This study illustrates a great potential of combining multiple instruments to fully characterize mesoscale gravity waves and inspect their intrinsic properties

Stunning new science discoveries including neutral thermospheric metal layers in the 100–200 km altitude from McMurdo lidar campaign and other world lidar observations have led to a new initiative in the middle and upper atmosphere science community—the very large-aperture lidar Observatory for Atmosphere Space Interaction Studies (OASIS). These discoveries and the recent technology breakthroughs in Fe and Na Doppler lidars are presented to illustrate the science drivers and technology foundations forming the basis for OASIS.

Since the start of the McMurdo Fe lidar campaign, largeamplitude (~±30 K), long-period (4 to 9 h) waves with upward energy propagating signatures are frequently observed in the MLT temperatures. Despite its frequent appearance, such type of wave was neither widely observed nor well understood in the past. At McMurdo (77.8°S, 166.7°E), the simultaneous observations of such waves using lidar, radar and airglow imager can provide 3-D intrinsic wave-propagation properties, which are greatly needed for understanding their sources and potential impacts. This study presents the first coincident observation of these 4–9 h waves by lidar, radar and airglow imager in the Antarctic mesopause region.

A receiver employing a field-widened Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) is investigated for extending the wind measurement range of a narrowband Fe Doppler (372 nm) lidar from its existing measurement range in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) down to the ground. This design uses the multiple transmitted frequencies available from the base Fe Doppler lidar in combination with an MZI receiver to make a measurement of the Doppler shift from Rayleigh-Mie scattering that is independent of aerosol backscatter ratio, temperature and pressure of the lidar volume and also independent of geometric overlap, the chopper function and any other factor affecting the signal in both MZI channels equally. A ratio is constructed from the three frequencies and two channels of the interferometer that exhibits a measurement performance of 1.75 times the Cramer-Rao lower bound, which is comparable to the dual MZI (DMZ) while preserving the insensitivity to backscatter spectrum of the quad MZI (QMZ). Using actual data obtained recently from the Fe Doppler lidar, we show the expected measurement performance of this whole atmosphere lidar instrument concept.

In this paper, we analyze the performance of an all-fiber, micropulse, 1.5 μm coherent lidar for remote sensing of atmospheric temperature. The proposed system benefits from the recent advances in optics/electronics technology, especially an all-fiber image-reject homodyne receiver, where a high resolution spectrum in the baseband can be acquired. Due to the presence of a structured spectra resulting from the spontaneous Rayleigh-Brillouine scattering, associated with the relevant operating regimes, an accurate estimation of the temperature can be carried out. One of the main advantages of this system is the removal of the contaminating Mie backscatter signal by electronic filters at the baseband (before signal conditioning and amplification). The paper presents the basic concepts as well as a Monte-Carlo system simulation as the proof of concept.

The design, development, and first measurements of a novel mesospheric temperature lidar are described. The lidar technique employs mesospheric Fe as a fluorescence tracer and relies on the temperature dependence of the population difference of two closely spaced Fe transitions. The principal advantage of this technique is that robust solid-state broadband laser source(s) can be used that enables the lidar to be deployed at remote locations and aboard research aircraft. We describe the system design and present a detailed analysis of the measurement errors. Correlative temperature observations, made with the Colorado State University Na lidar at Fort Collins, Colorado, are also discussed. Last, we present the initial range-resolved temperature measurements in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere over both the North and the South Poles obtained with this system. OCIS codes: 280.0280, 280.3640, 120.0120, 140.0140.