Search

Albert Hesse was one of the pioneers in archaeometry in France. He has developed the electrical methods, and more specifically the continuous electrical surveying methods and focused very early on urban archaeology and geophysics. This paper focusses on his work, showing specific interactive maps to highlight the position of his different surveys world-wide.

We identify the previous phases of a building by means of GPR of a Roman quarter. We analyze the data from excavations and geophysics in a complementary way to understand the evolution of an urban space.

At the end of the Bronze Age, technical improvements have made possible the rise of the first generation of major sea powers around the Mediterranean realm, such as Etruria in Italy. The Etruscan coast was fringed by large lagoons, of which only one survives today: the lagoon of Orbetello. This peculiar lagoon is held between two sand spits that connect the former island of Argentario to the mainland. A third sand spit lies in the middle of the lagoon, and supports the Etruscan city of Orbetello. Archeological investigations suggest that the lagoon was connected to the sea through a natural outlet until the 9th century BCE, when an integrated management plan of the lagoon was implemented to optimize fishing. Subsequent closure of the natural outlet implies that lagoon management heavily subsequently relied on man-made openings to maintain the lagoon connected to the sea and nearby rivers. Today, three canals connect the lagoon to the sea. Management plans were implemented in the late 20th Century to fight a massive phase of eutrophication driven by excess release of fertilizers. Eutrophication as responsible for extensive fish kills, and to the release of mercury in the water column. Little is known about lagoon management and the evolution of the city before the 17th century CE, but it is clear that the wealth of the city of Orbetello and the health of its lagoon have been strongly correlated over the past three millennia. To track this coevolution, we conducted a coring campaign coupled to sub-bottom imaging in the very shallow (2) lagoon. iXblue Echoes 10 000 sub-bottom profiler reveals individual layers that can be traced across the lagoon, allowing stratigraphic correlations between cores, and highlighting the environmental significance of the sedimentary facies. Architecture of the deposits reveals a pronounced transgression of the lagoon over its shallowly inward-dipping margins since Antiquity. This led to the flooding of an array of regularly-spaced Roman farms along its southern shorelines, and to a more important flooding of Etruscan structures. Lagoon level rise was driven by a combination of regional sea level rise and fluctuations in the hydraulic balance of the lagoon, controlled by the opening and closure of canals. Sub-bottom imaging reveals buried structures tentatively interpreted as docks and canals used for navigation and salinity control. Sediment analyses under XRF scanning, Rock Eval, and hyperspectral imaging reveals that sedimentation is marked by an alternation of black, shelly organic silty clays and decimeter-thick layers of broken shells. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the cores capture up to five millennia of sedimentation. Ongoing analysis of mercury and phosphorus content, ostracods and pollen assemblages, and chromatic pigments in the organic fractions are expected to document the links between sediment facies, eutrophication and salinity crises, and the rise and demise of land and lagoon management through the past three millennia. A sub-bottom profiling campaign in June 2022 is aimed at mapping the observed structure. Further coring is planned near putative man-made structures next Fall.

– Use of high resolution GPR mapping for the study of masonry walls. – Delineation of underlying the main characteristics of the wall. – Evaluate the different steps of renovation and/or partial reconstruction of the wall.

Donnees scientifiques produites :Mission de terrain de l’EFA- Fouilles et prospections a Malia5e. Malia - Recherches dans le secteur Pi (2005-2016)5g. Malia - Recherches sur le paleoenvironnement (2015-2017)Carottages dans le maraisMalia 2019 Ce rapport resume les activites de terrain qui ont concouru a enrichir nos connaissances sur la ville minoenne de Malia en mettant en œuvre differentes methodes d’acquisition de donnees. Elles ont permis de preciser l’extension et la densite d’occupation...

– Electrical resistivity and dielectric permittivity mapping using an electrostatic survey device. – GPR delineation of probable ancient anchor point of the ancient bridge. – Combination of GPR and electrostatic surveys for urban archaeology.

Summary Electrostatic profiling and mapping have been carried out in an urban context with two different geometries allowing the prospection of the first 3–4 meters. Despite the larger size of the prospection devices, compared to ground-penetrating radar (GPR), it has been successfully applied at almost all GPR locations in parallel within the same few days’ survey. At an intermediate operating frequency of 15 kHz, the method provides information on both electrical resistivity and “low frequency” effective dielectric permittivity (mainly linked to polarization in clayey materials), and is therefore complementary to the GPR method primarily used in urban prospection.

La commanderie de Jalès, à Berrias-et-Casteljau dans le sud de l’Ardèche, est l’une des maisons du Temple les mieux préservées de cette région. Étudiée dans le cadre d’un Projet Collectif de Recherche depuis 2017, elle fait l’objet de recherches pluridisciplinaires associant historiens, géographes, archéologues et géophysiciens. Ce projet vise à mettre en lumière les différentes périodes de genèse, de développement et de transformation de la maison de la commanderie, ensemble d’édifices destinés à la vie de la communauté religieuse, mais aussi du territoire et du vaste domaine agricole au cœur duquel elle s’est développée.L’année 2019 a permis de progresser sur plusieurs points. Sur un plan général, l’étude archéogéographique de l’environnement de la commanderie et de ses dépendances a été confiée à Maël Crépy (géographe, chercheur associé Archéorient), qui a pu travailler à la fois à la mise en contexte de l’ensemble du territoire de la commanderie et à une prospection de terrain sur les dépendances. Cette dernière prospection a été réalisée avec Emmanuelle Régagnon et Olivier Barge (Archéorient). L’étude historique, menée par Laurent D’Agostino (Atelier d’Archéologie Alpine), a progressé par le dépouillement et la transcription d’un certain nombre de textes, sans qu’il soit encore possible d’en présenter la synthèse.Sur le terrain, un nouveau chantier archéologique a été consacré aux bâtiments en avril, accueillant une dizaine d’étudiants de l’Université Lyon 2 pendant deux semaines. Le chantier a comporté un volet d’étude de bâti sur les bâtiments conventuels, dirigé par Evelyne Chauvin-Desfleurs et Laurent D’Agostino (Atelier d’Archéologie Alpine), et des sondages au sol dans la cour nord conduits par Audrey Saison (Pôle Archéologique de l’Ardèche) en recherche de l’enceinte de la basse cour. Bien que les données restent à traiter, Christophe Benech (Archéorient) a pu mener deux campagnes de prospection géophysique dans l’aile nord des bâtiments conventuels, à la fois dans les sols et de manière plus expérimentale dans les élévations. Les analyses xylologiques et dendrochronologiques réalisées durant l’hiver 2018-2019 par Stéphanie Wicha et Antoine Nicault (Archéobois) documentent par ailleurs différentes phases de construction entre le milieu du XIVe siècle et le XXe siècle.Enfin, nous avions livré en 2018 les premières images de la restitution 3D de la chapelle réalisée en collaboration entre Evelyne Chauvin-Desfleurs et Edouard Maréchal et Benoît Campo (architectes, Paris Picture Club). L’achèvement de l’étude de la chapelle a permis de revoir nos hypothèses de restitution des matériaux et d’aboutir à des rendus plausibles de l’architecture, mais aussi des matériaux de construction employés et de leur mise en œuvre.

Bien que certaines approches instrumentales utilisées en archéologie impliquent par essence et depuis de longues années l’utilisation d’instruments de mesure portables, les progrès technologiques ont depuis les années 2000 engendré une véritable explosion du nombre d’instruments permettant des mesures de plus en plus variées avec des dispositifs aux dimensions toujours plus compactes et aux prix les rendant accessibles. Ainsi, l’apparente facilité d’utilisation et la démocratisation d’accès à ces instruments « prêts à l’emploi » ont conduit à leur appropriation par un public qui se diversifie. Le but du présent ouvrage est donc de faire un point, par les spécialistes de ces méthodes, sur l’état de l’art des techniques portables et les perspectives possibles ces prochaines années.

International audience; Electromagnetic induction instruments (also called loop–loop, dipole–dipole, or Slingram) are now commonly used in archaeological prospecting. They are truly light instruments, which are able to measure both the apparent electrical conductivity and the apparent magnetic susceptibility of the ground. During a field test on Bahrain Island where the soil has a high clay content and a high salt content, surprisingly high values of in-phase response were obtained at all inter-coil spacings using CMD “Mini-Explorer” (GF Instruments Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic) at 30 kHz in both horizontal coplanar and vertical coplanar configurations, and the horizontal coplanar and vertical coplanar susceptibility variations were in total opposition. This apparent discrepancy is explained by considering the in-phase responses to be dominated by the relative dielectric permittivity. Using the raw and in-phase vertical coplanar and horizontal coplanar data, it is possible to determine and map the apparent permittivity and apparent magnetic susceptibility. For this case of slated soils with high clay content, the relative permittivity is strong but in agreement with both experimental data at lower frequencies and theoretical models reported in the literature.

La commanderie de Jalès, à Berrias-et-Casteljau dans le sud de l’Ardèche, est l’une des maisons du Temple les mieux préservées de cette région. Etudiée dans le cadre d’un Projet Collectif de Recherche depuis 2017, elle fait l’objet de recherches pluridisciplinaires associant historiens, géographes, archéologues et géophysiciens. Ce projet vise à mettre en lumière les différentes périodes de genèse, de développement et de transformation de la maison de la commanderie, ensemble d’édifices destinés à la vie de la communauté religieuse, mais aussi du territoire et du vaste domaine agricole au cœur duquel elle s’est développée.L’année 2018 a permis de progresser sur plusieurs points. Les relevés topographiques, microtopographiques, architecturaux et photogrammétriques ont été en grande partie achevés, fournissant un jeu de données tridimensionnelles inédites, là où l’on ne disposait que d’un plan très approximatif. Le corps central de la commanderie, correspondant à la cour conventuelle entourée de la chapelle, du cellier, du réfectoire et des écuries construits par l’ordre du Temple, est aujourd’hui mieux appréhendé et peut être abordé par l’archéologie du bâti. Les prospections géophysiques réalisées dans les cours et leur mise en perspective avec les cadastres anciens et les plans actuels mettent en évidence plusieurs étapes de transformation importantes depuis la Révolution, tout en précisant le tracé de l’enceinte de la basse cour qui accueillait les bâtiments utilitaires de la commanderie. Parallèlement, les microreliefs des parcelles entourant les bâtiments, ainsi que les données géophysiques, laissent entrevoir de multiples aménagements anthropiques encore difficiles à interpréter et à dater (bassins, fossés de drainage, chemins...).Enfin, l’étude archéologique de bâti de la chapelle menée en 2017 a permis d’aboutir en 2018 à une première modélisation 3D de l’état roman. La chapelle de la commanderie était en effet un édifice indépendant lors de sa construction vers 1150, avant d’être englobée dans un ensemble de bâtiments clos et surmontée d’un étage après le procès du Temple. La restitution 3D permet dans un premier temps de proposer une image de l’architecture primitive de la chapelle qui n’est plus visible aujourd’hui, en attendant d’ajouter les autres bâtiments romans à la suite des études de bâti à venir. Dans un second temps, cette modélisation a pu être utilisée pour restituer les décors peints primitifs à l’intérieur de la chapelle, sur la base des observations archéologiques.

International audience; We have developed an inversion process of electromagnetic induction (EMI) data based on a two-step approach with 1D inversion of the entire studied surface and a fast 3D inversion applied over limited areas. This process is similar to that formerly used in resistivity prospection. For the study of soil (environmental, engineering, or archaeological explorations), low-frequency electromagnetic instruments (referred to as Slingram EMI) have highly useful specificities. They are light, are easy to move in the field, and can simultaneously measure the ground’s electric conductivity and magnetic susceptibility; they have thus been used to map these properties over large surface areas, within relatively short periods of time, and at reasonable expense. The possibility of combining several coil geometries has opened up the potential for multidepth techniques and systematic 1D inversion, which are found to be sufficiently revealing to allow larger portions of surveyed areas to be analyzed. In the “targeted areas” selected for 3D inversion, the geometries of the 3D features and the resistivity and/or susceptibility contrasts are determined. This step is based on the method of moments, where only 3D heterogeneities are meshed, and only a small number of major characteristics, such as contrast, thickness, width, etc., are sought. We first applied this process to synthetic data, then to data acquired at an experimental test site, and finally to field cases. The rapid 3D inversion complements the 1D inversion by solving a series of issues: correction for the apparent anisotropy generated by the instrument configuration, multiarched anomalies, precise location of lateral changes, and determination of the properties contrasts. Our inversion results highlighted the importance of the instrument geometry. We also have determined that apparent magnetic susceptibility data can be more appropriate for the determination of the volume of man-made features and can be highly complementary to conductivity data.

International audience

Benech Christophe. Prospection géophysique à Tilbeshar (Sud-Est Anatolien). In: Anatolia Antiqua, Tome 10, 2002. pp. 293-296.

Our times are characterized by an increasing need for prospection particularly within the context of rescue archaeology. Geophysics has an important part to play due to its ability to identify some well defined targets as well as to investigate large areas. Several recent surveys, using carefully selected methods chosen in accordance with the type of expected remain or a combination of methods in order to refine or confirm the interpretation, have demonstrated the expertise of several organisations in a wide variety of archaeological contexts. However, important improvements are still to be expected from the laboratories. Our team, working within the framework of three dissertations, is investigating several original subjects, for which the initial results are presented and discussed here: (1) The use of magnetic susceptibility measurements on wide mesh grids in order to survey extensive areas immediately prior to their occupation or destruction by large modern equipment; (2) Experiments to test a new survey device (Slingram - CS150) able to measure the magnetic susceptibility of the ground; (3) Interpretation of a series of geophysical measurements integrated with other types of data into a G.I.S.

Magnetic prospecting is used mainly for horizontal mapping, whereas the determination of the depth of features receives only limited attention. The inverse problem has an infinity of solutions and it is not possible to define precisely either the exact shape or the exact depth of a given feature. On the one hand, the depth of the source of an anomaly is limited and minimal information about contrast, horizontal location and depth of the centre can be extracted from the data. On the other hand, comparison between results obtained from different methods or by the simultaneous interpretation of their results necessitates in the first place an evaluation of the correspondence between the depth of the sources indicated by the different methods. Details of a series of four techniques that deliver information about the depth or the range of depths of magnetic anomaly sources are presented here. The search for the equivalent dipole (i.e. a spherical body) is of very limited interest owing to the difference that exists between the actual archaeological features and a sphere. In contrast, Euler deconvolution provides interesting results when using a structural index approaching 2. The depth of the centre of magnetization and the total magnetic moment also can be determined. The latter allows an estimation of the product of the volume and the susceptibility contrast (the possible presence of non-induced magnetizations being considered). The downward continuation of the equivalent stratum susceptibility needs more empirical tests to define divergence criteria, but it delivers another estimation of the susceptibility changes and information about its depth variation. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

International audience; Electromagnetic susceptibility surveys are valuable for archaeological prospection owing to their ability to cover large areas of land. Their use, however, is often compromised by the conductivity influence of the soil and the limited investigation depth of the susceptibility response. To examine these constraints further, we compared the characteristics of two types of apparatus: coincident loop (e.g. Bartington MS2 field coil) and 'Slingram' instruments (EM38, SH3, CS60 and CS150). Theoretical considerations suggest that in contrast to coincident loop apparatus, Slingram instruments are less influenced by the soil conductivity and offer a greater maximum depth of investigation. The experimental results presented in this paper collected over an artificial structure at the Centre de Recherches Géophysiques (CRG) of Garchy (France), confirm the theoretical results and indicate that Slingram instruments are preferable for field susceptibility measurements.

This volume is the report on the results of the third excavation season of the Saudi-French Archaeological Project at Madâ'in Sâlih, Nabataean Hegra in northwest Saudi Arabia (MAEE, SCTA, CNRS, Univ Paris 1, IFPO). Apart from the results obtained in the different excavation areas (both in the residential area and in a triclinium south the Jabal Ithlib, the reader will find preliminary syntheses on the macro-vegetal remains (Ch. Bouchaud), on the pottery (C. Durand and Y. Gerber), on the geomagnetic survey (Chr. Benech), on the coins (Chr. Augé) and on the faunal remains (J. Studer)., Ce volume constitue le rapport sur les résultats de la troisième campagne de fouilles de la Mission archéologique franco-saoudienne de Madâ'in Sâlih, l'ancienne Hégra des Nabatéens, dans le nord-ouest de l'Arabie Saoudite (MAEE, SCTA, CNRS, Univ. Paris 1, IFPO). Outre les résultats obtenus dans les différents chantiers (dans la zone résidentielle et dans un triclinium au sud du Jabal Ithlib), le lecteur trouvera des synthèses préliminaires sur les macro-restes végétaux (Ch. Bouchaud), la céramique (C. Durand et Y. Gerber), la détection géophysique (Chr. Benech), les monnaies (Chr. Augé) et la faune (J. Studer)

International audience; Damas est considérée comme une des plus anciennes villes au monde encore habitées aujourd'hui. De cette longue histoire, elle a principalement gardé la mémoire de l'époque médiévale, les vestiges des époques antérieures étant plus rares. Pour la période classique, il est, cependant, un héritage qui a laissé une profonde empreinte sur la ville, c'est le plan d'urbanisme remontant à la période hellénistique qui s'est imposé à la ville araméenne bien connue par les textes mais dont aucun monument ne nous est parvenu. Les principaux vestiges encore visibles dans la vieille ville, et principalement autour de la mosquée des Omeyyades à l'emplacement du célèbre temple de Jupiter, ne remontent pas plus loin que les périodes romaine et byzantine. En dépit d'une longue et brillante historiographie, la vieille ville de Damas constitue encore aujourd'hui un cas d'étude exceptionnel sur l'urbanisme antique, comme le prouvent les découvertes de ces dernières années. Ce plan de type orthogonal a fait l'objet de plusieurs hypothèses de restitution à partir d'indices archéologiques relativement peu nombreux. Les différentes fouilles d'urgence réalisées par le service de la vieille ville de Damas (Direction générale des Antiquités et des Musées de Syrie ou DGAMS) ont apporté beaucoup d'informations archéologiques nouvelles sur l'histoire de la ville. Ces données, nécessairement ponctuelles comme toute fouille en milieu urbain, ont besoin d'être replacées dans un contexte topographique le plus précis possible afin de pouvoir analyser leur place dans l'évolution du tissu urbain. En amont de cette synthèse, il a paru nécessaire de dresser un état des lieux sur le plan d'urbanisme de Damas antique afin de juger de l'intérêt des nouvelles données de fouille dans la compréhension de l'organisation spatiale urbaine.

International audience; This report presents preliminary results from the Syrian-French archaeological mission at Ras Shamra – Ugarit for the fields seasons of 2009 and 2010. At Ras Shamra tell, the study of the the Late Bronze Age city continued at several sites (“rempart”, “Grand-rue” with the excavations of a water well, “pont-barrage”, area east of the royal palace), with the study of the ashlar mansonry, in addition to a new site in the so-called “Maison de Yabninu”. Two others projects —soundings in the area of the so-called “Temple de Dagan” and a georadar survey— have helped to improve our knowledge of the city’s urban fabric. The expedition’s work also extended to the neighbouring site of Ras Ibn Hani in order to provide insights into the Holocene morphogenesis of the tombolo. Research on archaeological and epigraphic material was also undertaken in the museums of Damascus, Aleppo and Lattakia during these two campaigns.; Ce rapport présente les résultats préliminaires des travaux de terrain de la mission archéologique syro-française de Ras Shamra – Ougarit qui se sont déroulés en 2009 et 2010. Sur le tell de Ras Shamra, l’étude de la ville d’Ougarit au Bronze récent s’est poursuivie sur plusieurs chantiers (« Rempart » et « Grand-rue » avec la fouille d’un puits en eau, « pont-barrage », étude du quartier à l’est du Palais royal), au travers de l’étude des techniques de construction (taille de la pierre), et par une nouvelle opération portant sur la Maison dite « de Yabninou ». Deux opérations (sondage dans le secteur du temple dit « de Dagan » et prospection géoradar) ont privilégié l’approche diachronique afin de mieux comprendre l’évolution urbanistique de la cité. Les travaux géoarchéologiques de la mission ont porté également sur le site voisin de Ras Ibn Hani afin de reconnaître l’évolution géomorphologique du tombolo au cours de l’Holocène. Au cours de ces deux campagnes, de nombreuses études portant sur le matériel archéologique et épigraphique des fouilles anciennes et récentes se sont par ailleurs poursuivies dans les musées de Damas, d’Alep et de Lattaquié.

Within a Syrian-French program entitled Emergence, organisation and expansion during the Late Bronze Age of the circular cities in the Syrian Jezireh area, two magnetic surveys have been carried out on Al-Rawda (Gondet and Castel, 2003) and Sheirat archaeological sites. This program deals with the emergence during the last phases of the Late Bronze Age of circular cities in the centre of the actual Syrian territory. Protected by large fortification ranges these cities were following a radio-c...

The site of Amrith is located on the Syrian coast 6km south of the modern city of Tartous. More ancient occupation, from the end of the 3th millennium B.C., has been identified on the tell but Amrith is first of all known as a typical site of the Phoenician period in Syria. The site is believed to be a suburb of the city of Aradus on the neighboring island, today called Arwad. It is known primarily for its temple from the 6th century B.C., and its necropolis, but the great extent of the site ...

The program of research on the site of Qinnasrin (Syria) has been managed since 2003 in collaboration with the direction of Syrian Antiquities and Museums and the Archeological Museum of Aleppo. Qinnasrin is generally recognized as the classical city of Calchis, near the modern village of al-‘Iss, 25 km to south-west from Aleppo (Mouterde an Poidebard, 1945). The project scope is the study of one of the first of Islamic cities from Northern Syria which has been the capital of the regional pro...

The site of Cyrrhus is located in the Afrin valley (North Syria) at the crossing of the roads between Antioch and inner Syria. The layout of the lower town of Cyrrhus is established on a rectangular grid fanning out from the Main Street (Fig. 1). This Hippodamian plan in the pure Hellenistic tradition seems to be more or less respected in the Roman and Byzantine periods. The grid pattern is centred on a colonnaded main street running north/south across the entire city. However, during the Rom...

International audience; This paper presents the results of a magnetic survey on the Hellenistic and Roman site of Doura-Europos in Syria. The interpretation of the magnetic data is based on an original approach by considering the use of space in a domestic unit.This type of study has been developed for sociological research but is adapted to the information carriedwithin geophysical data. After a brief presentation of the role of geophysicalmethods for the study of city planning, the most important components of the ‘space syntax' will be presented and applied to two blocks of Doura-Europos, one that has been excavated in the twentieth century by theYale University and another surveyed using the magnetic method.

Geophysical survey in urban context suffers from a series of external factors: vibrations, electrical and electromagnetic noises, complex subsurface structure and presence of buildings. To explore the first ten metres, the electrostatic method can replace the DC electrical method to image the structure of the ground with the same interpretation methods.Three examples are presented hereafter. In the first one attempted to characterise the medium in which a micro-tunnel had to be drilled. In the second, one looks under the Bastia cathedral pavement for the preceding medieval church remains. In the third, the path of the antique wall, a major feature of the global organisation of the city of Alexandria, was located under the streets., La prospection géophysique en milieu urbain souffre de différentes difficultés : vibrations, bruits électriques et électromagnétiques, structure superficielle complexe et présence d'ouvrages. Pour explorer les dix premiers mètres, la méthode électrostatique peut remplacer la méthode électrique à courant continu pour fournir une image des structures du sous-sol en utilisant les mêmes outils d'interprétation. Trois exemples d'emploi de cette méthode sont présentés Le premier correspond à la caractérisation du milieu dans lequel le microtunnel doit être foré. Le deuxième étudie le pavement de la cathédrale de Bastia en vue de connaître la structure de l'église médiévale. Le troisième permet de positionner l'emplacement de la muraille antique d'Alexandrie dans le sous-sol des rues de la ville actuelle.

International audience; Magnetic and electromagnetic measurements are influenced by magnetic susceptibility and, thus, are widely used in geophysical surveys for archeology or pedology. To date, the data inversion is performed separately. A filtering process incorporating both types of data is presented here. After testing the algorithm with synthetic data, the algorithm is used in several case studies in archeological prospecting. This approach presents two advantages: establishing the presence of remanent mag-netizations (viscous or thermoremanent), and achieving more refined depth analysis of the anomaly.

As concerns the links between ancient Alexandria and its famous light house on the island of Pharos, Strabo describes the so-caIled Heptastadium as "an embankment (which) forms a bridge extending from the mainland to the western portion of the island and leaves open only two passages ... which are bridged over; ...this work formed ... also an acqueduct...". Alluvium deposits on which now lies a -large part of the present city of Alexandria, have completely masked the traces of the Heptastadium: its position in the large existing isthmus was, till now, entirely conjectural and, from the middle nineteenth century, its orientation was believed to be largely different from that one of the antique streets network.

International audience

International audience