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Despite best intentions at the top of and across government and broad citizen support from the bottom up, the Energiewende has not produced the intended results. This chapter aims to increase the understanding of potential transition governance barriers. Therefore, I identify the major “reverse salients” Germany encountered, while trying to steer its economy away from conventional fuels. The “reverse salient” concept originates in the seminal works of Hughes (1987, 1993) and refers to insufficiently developed system components that prevent the whole system from evolving in desired directions. Delays in extending the power grid and the lack of appropriate solutions for storing electricity at a large scale are both examples of “reverse salients” encountered in the Energiewende arena. Alongside with technological system components, social ones can also gridlock transition processes. Indeed, as Germany’s case shows, people protesting against the construction of power lines, windmills, or power plants can cause transition barriers. Moreover, by adopting inappropriate policies governments can also induce major “reverse salients”. Since 2000, the share of renewable energy fed into the German electricity grid steadily grew, the instruments of the Energiewende toolbox sprawled out like mushrooms after the rain, and the interactions between social and technical elements of the nation's energy system reached degrees of complexity difficult to process by a single human mind. In this chapter I address some of these complexities. Using examples from practice, I discuss problems related to the intermittent nature of wind and solar energy, and explain why energy transitions require large-scale storage technologies to be successful. I show how Energiewende policies resulted in increasing societal burdens, describe the existential struggle of utility actors in the new regulatory context, and explain how non-governmental actors can and do misuse imperfect rules for their own profit. Finally, I assess the Energiewende outcomes and compare them to other nations’ efforts to decarbonize their energy systems.

During the past five decades decisions to design and re-design Germany’s energy system got entangled with severe economic crises, environmental and security concerns, nuclear proliferation threads, socio-political reforms, and geopolitical interests, steadily increasing the system’s complexity. This chapter is an attempt to grasp this complexity and to document how the Energiewende unfolded from the first thoughts about a future free of fossil and nuclear power plants up to its current proof-of-concept. I describe in it how Germany’s energy system has changed over time; identify the turning points in Germany’s energy policy, and the “contingencies”[According to Hughes (1969, 1979, 1986, 1987, 1993) contingencies are events that can redirect and fundamentally change one system’s development path (e.g., recessions, hot and cold wars, oil crises, accidents, etc.).] that have led to significant system changes. I explain how it came to be that the Greens—a fringe movement at the beginning of the period of analysis—gathered momentum, occupied central stage, and exported their agenda to all established political parties. Finally, I review the most important rules implemented to steer Germany’s economy toward low carbon technologies, highlight some of their shortcomings, and document the nation’s continuous efforts to learn from undesired outcomes and improve these rules.

Numerous institutional and organizational settings were established over the past decades to mitigate climate change, use common pool resources in a sustainable way, steer the transformation of Germany’s energy system, correct undesired outcomes, and inform political processes. This chapter provides information about the various factors that motivated and continue to motivate stakeholders to take action and trigger change in the Energiewende arena [The term “Energiewende arena” is directly derived from Ostrom’s “action arena” (2005).], and a useful structure for analyzing Germany’s energy and climate policy. I identify in it the main actors who influenced Germany’s energy transition, describe their relationships and their institutional preferences, analyze their behavior at various levels, and explain how their roles, values, norms, and positions have changed over time. I discuss how actors are involved in the process of crafting rules, how they build alliances to increase their influence in the political realm, and how they adjust their strategies to mitigate differences between the intended and actual results of their actions. I conclude this chapter emphasizing the values and the norms of different interest groups.

The deregulation of the electricity industry in Germany and Europe was similar in many ways to deregulation of energy access and breaking the natural monopolies formed by electricity grids in the US (Hirsh in Technology and transformation in the American electric industry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Hirsh in Power loss: the origins of deregulation and restructuring in the American electric utility system, Cambridge, London: MIT Press, 1999). Similarly, the EU Emission Trading System (ETS) has much in common with the US acid-rain program described by Ellermann (Markets for clean air: The US acid rain program, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). However, Germany’s policies to rapidly phase out its nuclear facilities in the wake of the Fukushima accident while simultaneously aiming for a zero-carbon economy remain unique worldwide. This chapter explores the unique patterns of the Energiewende framework. I describe in it the overarching quantitative and qualitative goals of the Energiewende and explain the strategies that were adopted to meet these goals. Then, I highlight the hierarchical structure of Energiewende targets, describe the various the levels at which interventions are required to steer change, and show how long-term political goals are divided in intermediate strategic and sectoral sub-targets. Next, I analyze the most important laws and regulations (henceforth, “rules”) that were implemented to accomplish overarching goals and subordinate targets. Finally, I describe the outcomes that these rules were intended to achieve, and how they relate one to another and to the European rules.

A high consumption of vegetables belonging to the Brassicaceae family has been related to a lower incidence of chronic diseases including different kinds of cancer. These beneficial effects of, e.g., broccoli, cabbage or rocket (arugula) intake have been mainly dedicated to the sulfur-containing glucosinolates (GLSs)—secondary plant compounds nearly exclusively present in Brassicaceae—and in particular to their bioactive breakdown products including isothiocyanates (ITCs). Overall, the current literature indicate that selected Brassica-derived ITCs exhibit health-promoting effects in vitro, as well as in laboratory mice in vivo. Some studies suggest anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties for ITCs which may be communicated through an activation of the redox-sensitive transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) that controls the expression of antioxidant and phase II enzymes. Furthermore, it has been shown that ITCs are able to significantly ameliorate a severe inflammatory phenotype in colitic mice in vivo. As there are studies available suggesting an epigenetic mode of action for Brassica-derived phytochemicals, the conduction of further studies would be recommendable to investigate if the beneficial effects of these compounds also persist during an irregular consumption pattern.

13C NMR spectroscopy provides insight into the chemistry of carbohydrate-based ferric preparations. Specifically, it reveals whether oxygen atoms of the carbohydrate are directly bonded to the preparations’ ferric centres or whether more distant interactions are present. After having validated the method by investigating the ferric solutions of low-molecular complexes as well as polynuclear ferric samples, it is demonstrated that common constituents of medically used ferric preparations such as sucrose and other glucose-based saccharides do not support ferric carbohydrate chelates. Instead, these carbohydrates reside outside the NMR-spectroscopically ’blinded’ region about the ferric centres and experience the so-called Evans effect that can be used to measure the magnetic moment of the solutions. As a result, an easily accessible physicochemical parameter is provided to characterise commercial iron(III) preparations, namely the samples’ magnetism in terms of the in situ-measured spin-normalised effective Bohr magneton number μ eff 2 / 35 . The procedure can, moreover, be combined with a facile NMR-spectroscopic iron assay.

Main objective of the recently started collaborative research project SFB/TR29 B4 is to provide cross-generational assistance to human operators working in industrial product-service systems (IPS(2)). By combining the ideas of action-specificity and multimodality a more immediate and purposeful reaction towards warnings is assumed. For this purpose, an action-specific warning system in form of a glove has been developed. It provides either visual, auditory or haptic feedback or a combination of all modalities. In a first study this prototype was compared with a conventional warning system, where multimodal devices were directly mounted to the machine. The test scenario used in this study is the 'changing of a spindle' on a replica of a micro milling machine. It was conducted with 42 participants. The experimental design is a within-design in terms of the two warning systems and a between-design concerning the three modalities and its combinations. Results of the two-way ANOVA with repeated measures on both factors 'system' and 'modality' show a significant main effect for the 'modality' and a significant interaction effect between both factors. Especially the haptic warnings on the action-specific glove were described as "that kind of warning, which evokes the fastest response".

In transplant rejection, graft versus host or autoimmune diseases T cells are mediating the pathophysiological processes. Compared to unspecific pharmacological immune suppression specific inhibition of those T cells, that are involved in the disease, would be an alternative and attractive approach. T cells are activated after their T cell receptor (TCR) recognizes an antigenic peptide displayed by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). Molecules that interact with MHC-peptide-complexes in a specific fashion should block T cells with identical specificity. Using the model of the SSX2 103–111/HLA-A*0201 complex we investigated a panel of MHC-peptide-specific Fab antibodies for their capacity blocking specific T cell clones. Like TCRs all Fab antibodies reacted with the MHC complex only when the SSX2 103–111 peptide was displayed. By introducing single amino acid mutations in the HLA-A*0201 heavy chain we identified the K66 residue as the most critical binding similar to that of TCRs. However, some Fab antibodies did not inhibit the reactivity of a specific T cell clone against peptide pulsed, artificial targets, nor cells displaying the peptide after endogenous processing. Measurements of binding kinetics revealed that only those Fab antibodies were capable of blocking T cells that interacted with an affinity in the nanomolar range. Fab antibodies binding like TCRs with affinities on the lower micromolar range did not inhibit T cell reactivity. These results indicate that molecules that block T cells by competitive binding with the TCR must have the same specificity but higher affinity for the MHC-peptide-complex than the TCR.

SSX2 is a member of the family of cancer/testis antigens. The SSX2 derived peptide SSX2103–111 has been shown to be presented to cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) by Major-Histocompatibility (MHC) Class-I complexes after endogenous processing, more precisely by the allele HLA-A*0201. The HLA-A*0201- and SSX2-positive melanoma cell line SK-Mel-37 but not Me275 had been shown to elicit reactivity in SSX2103–111 specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. To analyze the correlation between SSX2103–111 presentation and T-cell stimulation, we intended to visualize presentation of SSX2103–111 in these melanoma cell lines. Fab-antibodies were established from a human phage library with specificity for SSX2103–111/HLA-A*0201 complexes (but non-reactive with HLA-A*0201 or SSX2103–111 alone) and used to visualize the presentation of SSX2103–111 in the context of HLA-A*0201 by fluorescence microscopy. Presentation of SSX2103–111 the context of HLA-A*0201 was demonstrated for the majority of SK-Mel-37, but for only a small fraction (

(13)C NMR spectroscopy provides insight into the chemistry of carbohydrate-based ferric preparations. Specifically, it reveals whether oxygen atoms of the carbohydrate are directly bonded to the preparations' ferric centres or whether more distant interactions are present. After having validated the method by investigating the ferric solutions of low-molecular complexes as well as polynuclear ferric samples, it is demonstrated that common constituents of medically used ferric preparations such as sucrose and other glucose-based saccharides do not support ferric carbohydrate chelates. Instead, these carbohydrates reside outside the NMR-spectroscopically 'blinded' region about the ferric centres and experience the so-called Evans effect that can be used to measure the magnetic moment of the solutions. As a result, an easily accessible physicochemical parameter is provided to characterise commercial iron(III) preparations, namely the samples' magnetism in terms of the in situ-measured spin-normalised effective Bohr magneton number μ(eff)(2)/35. The procedure can, moreover, be combined with a facile NMR-spectroscopic iron assay.

The Brassica-derived isothiocyanate sulforaphane (SFN) is known to induce factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a transcription factor centrally involved in chemoprevention. Furthermore, SFN exhibits anti-inflammatory properties in vitro and in vivo. However, little is known regarding the anti-inflammatory properties of SFN in severe inflammatory phenotypes. In the present study, we tested if pre-treatment with SFN protects mice from dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced colitis. C57BL/6 mice received either phosphate-buffered saline (control) or 25 mg/kg body weight (BW) SFN per os for 7 days. Subsequently, acute colitis was induced by administering 4% DSS via drinking water for 5 days and BWs, stool consistency and faecal blood loss were recorded. Following endoscopic colonoscopy, mice were sacrificed, the organs excised and spleen weights and colon lengths measured. For histopathological analysis, distal colon samples were fixed in 4% para-formaldehyde, sectioned and stained with hematoxylin/eosin. Inflammatory biomarkers were also measured in distal colon. Treatment with SFN prior to colitis induction significantly minimised both BW loss and the disease activity index compared to control mice. Furthermore, colon lengths in SFN pre-treated mice were significantly longer than in control mice. Both macroscopic and microscopic analysis of the colon revealed attenuated inflammation in SFN pre-treated animals. mRNA analysis of distal colon samples confirmed reduced expression of inflammatory markers and increased expression of Nrf2-dependent genes in SFN pre-treated mice. Our results indicate that pre-treating mice with SFN confers protection from DSS-induced colitis. These protective effects were corroborated macroscopically, microscopically and at the molecular level.

To keep up in times of global competition, an integrated user support is crucial for the safety and competitiveness in the field of Industrial Product-Service Systems (IPS2). This paper contains a review of the project work on warnings and instructions in IPS2 using the application scenario ‘spindle change’ on a micro milling machine. Specifically, the invented warning prototype and the animated instruction video as well as the associated experiments and their results will be presented. The paper concludes with the recent project work on the integration of both types of user support and the provision of future prospects.

Main objective of the recently started collaborative research project SFB/TR29 B4 is to provide cross-generational assistance to human operators working in industrial product-service systems (IPS(2)). By combining the ideas of action-specificity and multimodality a more immediate and purposeful reaction towards warnings is assumed. For this purpose, an action-specific warning system in form of a glove has been developed. It provides either visual, auditory or haptic feedback or a combination of all modalities. In a first study this prototype was compared with a conventional warning system, where multimodal devices were directly mounted to the machine. The test scenario used in this study is the 'changing of a spindle' on a replica of a micro milling machine. It was conducted with 42 participants. The experimental design is a within-design in terms of the two warning systems and a between-design concerning the three modalities and its combinations. Results of the two-way ANOVA with repeated measures on both factors 'system' and 'modality' show a significant main effect for the 'modality' and a significant interaction effect between both factors. Especially the haptic warnings on the action-specific glove were described as "that kind of warning, which evokes the fastest response".