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Psychopathology : international journal of descriptive and experimental psychopathology, phenomenology and clinical diagnostics (2022). doi:10.1159/000525760, Published by Karger, Basel

Journal of neural transmission 129(4), 421-429 (2022). doi:10.1007/s00702-022-02481-w, Published by Springer, Wien [u.a.]

Background: The measures taken to contain the COVID-19 pandemic have led to significant changes in people’s daily lives. This paper examines changes in substance use during the first lockdown (March–July 2020) and investigates mental health burdens in substance users with increased consumption of alcohol, nicotine or tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in Germany compared to users with unchanged or reduced consumption. Method: In a cross-sectional online survey, 2369 people were asked about their mental health and their substance use during the first lockdown in Germany. Results: Of the participants, 28.5% increased their alcohol use, 28.8% their use of tobacco products, and 20.6% their use of THC-containing products during the pandemic. The groups with increased alcohol, nicotine, and THC use during the first lockdown reported more depressive symptoms and anxiety. Individuals who reported increased consumption of alcohol or nicotine were also more likely to experience loneliness and have suicidal thoughts and were more often stressed due to social distancing. Conclusion: Alcohol, nicotine and THC increased in a subgroup of consumers who reported to have more mental health problems compared to individuals who did not increase their consumption. This increased substance use could, therefore, be understood as a dysfunctional strategy to cope with negative emotions during the lockdown.

ZusammenfassungAdoleszente Mütter und ihre Kinder stellen eine Hochrisikogruppe für ungünstige Entwicklungsverläufe dar. Frühe Gesundheits- und Förderangebote sollen belastete Mutter-Kind-Dyaden unterstützen. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Untersuchung und der Vergleich der Inanspruchnahme dieser Angebote durch adoleszente Mutter-Kind-Dyaden im Vergleich zu erwachsenen Müttern und ihren Kindern in einer deutschen Großstadt. N=99 Mütter (Alter der Kinder: 5,3±1,0 Monate) wurden bezüglich der Inanspruchnahme von Interventionen befragt, die drei Gruppen zugeordnet („Interaktionsförderung“, „Mütterliche Förderung“, „Kindliche Förderung“) und nach Kosten unterteilt wurden. Es wurden die Unterschiede zwischen adoleszenten und erwachsenen Müttern untersucht, zudem explorativ Unterschiede bezüglich der vermittelnden Stellen. Angebote der „Interaktionsförderung“ wurden signifikant häufiger von adoleszenten Müttern (U: 605,50, p

Zusammenfassung. Fragestellung: Ziel der Längsschnittstudie ist es, herauszufinden, welche mütterlichen Faktoren die Auswirkungen adoleszenter Mutterschaft auf die kognitive und sprachliche Entwicklung sowie Verhaltensprobleme bei Kindern im Vorschulalter beeinflussen. Basierend auf dem aktuellen Stand der Literatur wurden mütterliche Feinfühligkeit (EA), Sozioökonomischer Status (SES) und psychische Belastung als mögliche Einflussfaktoren identifiziert. Methodik: N = 31 adoleszente und N = 47 adulte Mütter mit ihren Kindern im Alter von 3.0 bis 5.9 Jahren (M = 3.55) nahmen an der Studie teil. Kindliche Variablen beinhalteten die kognitive Entwicklung (WPPSI-III), Sprachentwicklung (SSV) und Verhaltensprobleme (SDQ). Mütterliche Faktoren umfassen mütterliche Feinfühligkeit in der Mutter-Kind Interaktion (EA), sozioökonomischen Status (SES) sowie psychische Belastung (BSI-18). Ergebnisse: Kinder adoleszenter Mütter erzielten schlechtere Leistungen in ihrer kognitiven und sprachlichen Entwicklung und wurden von ihren Müttern als verhaltensauffälliger beschrieben als Kinder adulter Mütter. Mediationsanalysen zeigten, dass der Effekt des Alters der Mütter auf die kognitive Entwicklung der Kinder über eine geringere Feinfühligkeit mediiert wurde. Ferner wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen mütterlichem Alter und kindlichen Verhaltensauffälligkeiten über eine höhere psychische Belastung der Mütter mediiert. Schlussfolgerung: Kinder adoleszenter Mütter weisen, verglichen mit gleichaltrigen Kindern adulter Mütter, im Vorschulalter Entwicklungsdefizite auf. Diese können teilweise durch eine geringere Feinfühligkeit und eine höhere psychische Belastung adoleszenter Mütter erklärt werden.

Social-Emotional competencies evolve early in life. For example, early emotion regulation is learned primarily in the context of mother-child interaction, which may allow for maternal influences to shape children's social-emotional development. The aim of the current study was to longitudinally examine maternal determinants of children's early social-emotional development in a community-based sample of first-time mothers (N = 61, aged 22-39 years). Specifically, we used structural equation modeling to examine how maternal emotion regulation difficulties and subclinical depression directly and indirectly, through sensitivity and postnatal bonding, assessed at 6 to 8 months predicted child outcomes at 12 to 16 months. We found that mothers' sensitivity predicted fewer social-emotional and behavioral problems and that stronger bonding predicted fewer problems and more social-emotional competencies. Emotion regulation difficulties were significantly associated with depressive symptoms; yet, when accounting for shared variances, both factors differentially predicted less positive child outcomes such that more difficulties indirectly, through poorer bonding, predicted greater delay in competencies, and more symptoms indirectly, through less sensitivity, predicted more problems. Current findings underline the significance of maternal factors impacting the quality of mother-child interaction for children's positive development. Potential implications for early prevention programs to support children who are otherwise at risk for negative emotional outcomes due to mothers' emotional state postpartum are discussed.Las competencias sociales-emocionales evolucionan temprano en la vida. Por ejemplo, la temprana regulación de la emoción se aprende primariamente en el contexto de la interacción madre-niño, lo cual pudiera permitir que las influencias maternas den forma al desarrollo socio-emocional de los niños. El objetivo del presente estudio fue examinar longitudinalmente los determinantes maternos del temprano desarrollo socio-emocional de los niños en un grupo muestra con base comunitaria de madres primerizas (N = 61, edad 22-39 años). Específicamente, usamos modelos de ecuaciones estructurales para examinar cómo las dificultades de la regulación emocional materna y la depresión subclínica directa e indirectamente, a través de la sensibilidad y la vinculación posnatal, evaluada a los 6-8 meses predijeron los resultados en el niño a los 12-16 meses. (i) La sensibilidad de las mamás predijo menos problemas socio-emocionales y de conducta. (ii) Una más fuerte vinculación predijo menos problemas y más competencias socio-emocionales. (iii) Las dificultades de la regulación de la emoción estuvieron significativamente asociadas con síntomas depresivos, aunque cuando se toma en cuenta las variaciones compartidas, ambos factores diferencialmente predijeron menos positivos resultados en el niño de manera que más dificultades indirectamente, a través de una más pobre vinculación, predijeron mayor demora en las competencias y más síntomas indirectamente, a través de menos sensibilidad, predijeron más problemas. Los presentes resultados subrayan lo significativo de los factores maternos que impactan la calidad de la interacción madre-niño para el desarrollo positivo de los niños. Se discuten las posibles implicaciones para programas de temprana intervención para dar apoyo a los niños que de otra manera están bajo riesgo de resultados emocionales negativos debido al estado emocional de las madres después del parto.Les compétences socio-émotionnelles évoluent tôt dans la vie. Par exemple, la régulation précoce de l’émotion est apprise principalement dans le contexte de l'interaction mère-enfant, ce qui pourrait permettre aux influences maternelles de former le développement socio-émotionnel des enfants. Le but de cette étude était d'examiner longitudinalement les déterminants maternels du développement socio-émotionnel précoce des enfants dans un échantillon à l’échelle communautaire de mères primipares (N = 61, âgées de 22 à 39 ans). Plus spécifiquement, nous avons utilisé une modélisation d’équation structurelle afin d'examiner la manière dont les difficultés de régulation de l’émotion maternelle et la dépression sub-clinique directement et indirectement, à travers la sensibilité et le lien postnatal, évalués à 6-8 mois, a prédit les résultats de l'enfant à 12-16 mois. (i) La sensibilité des mères a prédit moins de problèmes socio-émotionnels et de problèmes de comportement. (ii) Un lien plus fort a prédit moins de problèmes et plus de compétences socio-émotionnelles. (iii) Les difficultés de régulation de l’émotion ont été fortement liées aux symptômes dépressifs, cependant, en tenant compte de la variance communie, les deux facteurs ont prédit différentiellement moins de résultats positifs pour l'enfant, de telle façon que plus de difficultés indirectement, à travers un lien plus appauvri, ont prédit un plus grand délai dans les compétences et plus de symptômes indirectement, à travers moins de sensibilité, ont prédit plus de problèmes. Les résultats présents soulignent l'importance des facteurs maternels qui impactent la qualité de l'interaction mère-enfant pour le développement positif des enfants. Les implications potentielles pour les programmes précoces de prévention pour soutenir les enfants qui sans eux sont à risque de résultats émotionnels négatifs du fait de l’état émotionnel postpartum des mères sont discutées.Sozial-emotionale Kompetenzen entwickeln sich schon früh im Leben. So wird beispielsweise die frühe Emotionsregulation vor allem im Rahmen der Mutter-Kind-Interaktion erlernt, die es ermöglichen kann, dass mütterliche Einflüsse die sozial-emotionale Entwicklung von Kindern formen. Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war es, die mütterlichen Determinanten der frühen sozial-emotionalen Entwicklung von Kindern in einer gemeindebasierten Stichprobe von Erstmüttern (N = 61, 22-39 Jahre) longitudinal zu untersuchen. Im Besonderen verwendeten wir Strukturgleichungsmodelle, um zu untersuchen, wie mütterliche Emotionsregulationsschwierigkeiten und subklinische Depression direkt und indirekt, über Sensitivität und postnatale Bindung (im Alter von 6-8 Monaten beurteilt), die Ergebnisse der Kinder im Alter von 12-16 Monaten vorhersagten. (i) Die Sensitivität der Mütter sagte weniger sozial-emotionale und Verhaltensprobleme vorher. (ii) Eine stärkere Bindung sagte weniger Probleme und mehr sozial-emotionale Kompetenzen vorher. (iii) Emotionsregulationsschwierigkeiten wurden signifikant mit depressiven Symptomen in Verbindung gebracht, unter Berücksichtigung der geteilten Varianz sagten beide Faktoren auf unterschiedliche Weise weniger positive Ergebnisse bei den Kindern vorher: Mehr Schwierigkeiten sagten indirekt über eine schlechtere Bindung eine größere Entwicklungsverzögerung der Kompetenzen vorher, und mehr Symptome sagten indirekt über eine geringere Sensitivität mehr Probleme vorher. Die aktuellen Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Bedeutung mütterlicher Faktoren, welche die Qualität der Mutter-Kind-Interaktion beeinflussen, für die positive Entwicklung von Kindern. Mögliche Implikationen für frühe Präventionsprogramme zur Unterstützung von Kindern, die anderweitig aufgrund des postnatalen emotionalen Zustands der Mütter für negative emotionale Ergebnisse gefährdet sind, werden diskutiert.母のように？子どものように？子どもの早期の社会性と情動の発達における母親の決定要素 社会性と情動の能力は人生早期に発達する。たとえば、早期の感情調節は母親の影響が子どもの社会性と情動の発達を形成すると考えられる、母子相互作用の文脈の中で主に学ばれる。本研究の目的は、地域をベースとした第一子の母親をサンプルに、子どもの早期の社会性と情動の発達における母親の決定要素を縦断的に調査することである (N=61、22-39歳) 。具体的には、乳児が6-8か月時に評価した母親の感情調節の難しさと潜在性抑うつが、感受性と出産後の絆を通して、直接的、間接的にどのように12-16か月時の子どもの結果の予測につながるかを調査するため構造方程式モデリングを使用した。 (ⅰ) 母親の感受性が社会性と情動及び行動の問題を少なくすることが予測される (ⅱ) より強い絆は問題を減らし、社会性と情動の能力を強化することが予測される (ⅲ) 感情調節の難しさは抑うつ的な症状と有意に関連するが、バリアンスを説明する際、絆の貧弱さを通して間接的により多くの症状が多くの問題を予測するというように、両方の因子が肯定的な子どもの結果が差異的により少なくなることが予測された。結果は子どもの肯定的な発達のための母子相互作用の質に影響を与える母親要因の重要性を明白に示している。母親の産後の感情状態のために、さもなければ否定的な感情の結果となるリスクのある子どもを支える早期の予防プログラムの潜在的な意味合いを議論する。.像媽媽一樣的孩子？兒童早期社會情感發展的母親決定因素 社交情緒能力在生命早期就會發生變化。例如, 早期情緒調節主要是在母子互動中學習, 母親的影響可能塑造兒童的社會情感發展。本研究的目的是縱向檢查兒童早期社會情感發展的母親因素, 這是一個以社區為基礎的首任母親樣本 (N = 61, 年齡22-39歲) 。具體而言, 我們使用結構方程模型, 來檢查在6-8個月時評估的母體情緒調節困難和徵狀不顯的臨床抑鬱, 如何直接和間接地通過敏感性和產後母嬰關係, 預測12-16個月時的兒童結果。 (i) 母親的敏感性預測較少的社交情緒和行為問題。 (ii) 較強的母嬰關係預測較少的問題和較多的社交情感能力。 (iii) 情緒調節困難與抑鬱症狀顯著相關, 然而, 當考慮到共同的差異時, 兩種因素預測不太正面的兒童結果, 通過較差的母嬰關係, 間接地透過更多的困難, 預測能力延遲發展和更多症狀, 通過敏感度降低, 間接地預測更多問題。目前的研究結果強調影響母子互動質量的母體因素, 對兒童積極發展的重要性。作者討論早期預防計劃的潛在影響, 以支持因母親產後情緒狀態而導致負面情緒結果風險的兒童。.هل الطفل مثل والدته ؟ المحددات الأمومية للنمو الاجتماعي العاطفي المبكر عند الأطفال الكفاءات الاجتماعية والعاطفية تتطور في وقت مبكر من الحياة. فعلي سبيل المثال ، يتم تعلم تنظيم العاطفة المبكر في المقام الأول في سياق التفاعل بين الأم والطفل ، مما قد يسمح بتاثيرات الأمومة بتشكيل النمو الاجتماعي-العاطفي للأطفال. تهدف الدراسة الحالية إلى الاستكشاف الطولي للمحددات الأمومية للنمو الاجتماعي-العاطفي المبكرعند الأطفال من خلال عينه مجتمعية من الأمهات للمرة الاولي (N = 61) في أعمار بين 22-39 سنة. وعلي وجه التحديد ، استخدمنا نمذجة المعادلة الهيكلية لدراسة كيف ان صعوبات تنظيم العاطفة الأموميه والاكتئاب الإكلينيكي بشكل مباشر وغير مباشر ، من خلال الحساسية وتكوين الروابط ما بعد الولادة ، والتي تم قياسها في عمر 6-8 شهور قد تنبأت بنتائج الطفل في عمر 12-16 شهرا. وتمثلت هذه النتائج في التالي: (1) توقعت حساسية الأمهات عددا اقل من المشاكل الاجتماعية-العاطفية والسلوكية و (2) تكوين الروابط القوية يتنبأ بمشاكل أقل وبمزيد من القدرات الاجتماعية-العاطفية و(3) كانت الصعوبات المتعلقة بتنظيم الانفعالات مرتبطة بشكل كبير باعراض الاكتئاب ، ومع ذلك ، عند أخذ التباينات المشتركة في الاعتبار ، فان كلا العاملين تنبأ بنتائج أقل ايجابيه للطفل بحيث أن زيادة الصعوبات تنبأت بشكل غير مباشر بالتأخر في تكوين الكفاءات كما أن زيادة الأعراض تنبأت بالمزيد من المشاكل من خلال الحساسية الأقل. وتؤكد النتائج الحالية علي أهميه العوامل الأمومية التي تؤثر علي نوعيه التفاعل بين الام والطفل من أجل النمو الإيجابي للأطفال. وتناقش الدراسة التطبيقات المحتملة لبرامج الوقاية المبكرة لدعم الأطفال المعرضين لخطر النتائج العاطفية السلبية بسبب الحالة العاطفية للأمهات بعد الولادة.

Mutterschaft in der Adoleszenz ist mit Risiken sowohl fur die junge Mutter als auch fur die Kinder verbunden. Darstellung des aktuellen Forschungsstands zur psychischen Gesundheit minderjahriger Mutter und deren Auswirkungen auf die Entwicklung ihrer Kinder. Elektronische Datenbankrecherche in PubMed unter Verwendung verschiedener kombinierter Schlusselbegriffe wie „teenage pregnancy“, „adolescent pregnancy“, „teenage mother“, „child development“, „mother-child interaction“, Durchsicht der Literaturangaben der gefundenen Quellen und Diskussion aktueller Publikationen und Datenbanken offentlicher Trager. Neben psychosozialen Risiken wie geringere Bildungsjahre durch die Familiengrundung und geringerem Einkommen finden sich haufiger psychische Erkrankungen bei jungen Muttern, sowohl vor Eintritt der Schwangerschaft als auch im Verlauf durch die zusatzlichen Belastungen der Mutterschaft in der eigenen Entwicklungsphase der Jugend. Diese konnen sich ungunstig auf das Interaktionsverhalten der Mutter-Kind-Dyaden und dadurch auf die psychosoziale und kognitive Entwicklung der Kinder auswirken und eine transgenerationale Weitergabe von Risiken bewirken. Neben der Primarpravention durch die Verhinderung von Schwangerschaften im Jugendalter ist die fruhe Identifikation risikobelasteter adoleszenter Muttern und ihrer Kinder fur fruhe Behandlung und Intervention notwendig.

Archives of public health 79(1), 137 (2021). doi:10.1186/s13690-021-00642-z, Published by Archives, Bruxelles

Adolescent mothers and their children represent a high-risk group for unfavorable developmental outcomes. There are early health and support services for this group. The aim of the current study was to investigate and compare the use of these interventions by adolescent mother-child dyads compared to adult mothers and their children. N=99 mothers (age of children: 5.3±1.0 months) were interviewed regarding early interventions, which were sorted into three groups ("interaction interventions", "child development" and "maternal support interventions") and pooled according to costs. Group differences in utilization and, exploratively, differences in allocation paths between adolescent and adult mothers were investigated. "Interaction interventions" were significantly more frequently used by adolescent mothers (U: 605.50, p0.001). Interventions concerning "child development" (U: 633.50, p0.001) and "maternal support" (U: 477.50, p0.001) and interventions to be paid for (U: 582.00, p0.001) by adult mothers. Social contacts (U: 817.00, p=0.003) and general practitioners (GP)/gynecologists (U: 879.00, p = 0.054) directed the adult mothers significantly more often to interventions, whereas adolescent mothers significantly more frequently were directed to other professional contacts (U: 877.50, p=0.01) and the youth welfare service (U: 962.50, p=0.021) as intermediaries. Early interventions for child and maternal health and interventions with costs were used significantly less frequently by adolescent mothers. Healthcare professionals such as GPs, gynecologists and pediatricians, should expand their counselling services on health interventions and support services in the high-risk group of adolescent mothers.Adoleszente Mütter und ihre Kinder stellen eine Hochrisikogruppe für ungünstige Entwicklungsverläufe dar. Frühe Gesundheits- und Förderangebote sollen belastete Mutter-Kind-Dyaden unterstützen. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Untersuchung und der Vergleich der Inanspruchnahme dieser Angebote durch adoleszente Mutter-Kind-Dyaden im Vergleich zu erwachsenen Müttern und ihren Kindern in einer deutschen Großstadt. N=99 Mütter (Alter der Kinder: 5,3±1,0 Monate) wurden bezüglich der Inanspruchnahme von Interventionen befragt, die drei Gruppen zugeordnet („Interaktionsförderung“, „Mütterliche Förderung“, „Kindliche Förderung“) und nach Kosten unterteilt wurden. Es wurden die Unterschiede zwischen adoleszenten und erwachsenen Müttern untersucht, zudem explorativ Unterschiede bezüglich der vermittelnden Stellen. Angebote der „Interaktionsförderung“ wurden signifikant häufiger von adoleszenten Müttern (U: 605,50, p0,001) wahrgenommen, Angebote in den Bereichen „Kindliche Förderung“ ( U: 633,50, p0,001) und „Mütterliche Förderung“ (U: 477,50, p0,001) und kostenpflichtige Angebote (U: 582,00, p0,001) hingegen von erwachsenen Müttern. Soziale Kontakte (U: 817,00 p=0,003) und Hausärzte/Gynäkologen (U: 879,00, p=0,054) vermittelten den erwachsenen Müttern signifikant häufiger Angebote, bei den adoleszenten Müttern andere professionelle Kontakte (U: 877,50, p=0,01) und das Jugendamt (U: 962,50, p=0,021). Frühe Gesundheits- und Förderangebote für das Kind oder die Mutter allein und kostenpflichtige Angebote erreichen die adoleszenten Mütter signifikant seltener. Insbesondere Akteure des Gesundheitswesens wie Hausärzte, Gynäkologen und Pädiater sollten ihr Beratungsangebot zu frühen Gesundheits- und Förderangeboten bei der Hochrisikogruppe der adoleszenten Mütter erweitern.

Children of adolescent mothers are a high-risk group for negative child development. Previous findings suggest that early interventions may enhance child development by improving mother–child interaction. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate a mother–child intervention (STEEP-b) program in high-risk adolescent mother–infant dyads (N= 56) within a randomized controlled trial (RCT). Mother–child interaction was assessed at baseline (T1), postintervention (T2), and follow-up (T3). The primary outcome was the change in maternal sensitivity and child responsiveness from T1 to T2 that was measured by blinded ratings of videotaped mother–child-interaction with the Emotional Availability Scales. A modified intention-to-treat analysis was performed to examine the data. No intervention effect was found for maternal sensitivity, 95% CI [-0.59–0.60],p= .99, and child responsiveness, 95% CI [-0.51–0.62],p= .84. Maternal sensitivity and child responsiveness did not change over time in both groups (allps> .05). A statistically nonsignificant, but potentially clinically meaningful difference emerged between rates of serious adverse events, SC: 4 (14.8%), STEEP-b: 1 (3.4%), possibly driven by different intensity of surveillance of dyads in the treatment groups. The current findings question the effectiveness of STEEP-b for high-risk adolescent mothers and do not justify the broad implementation of this approach.

The impact of adolecent motherhood on child development in preschool children- identification of maternal risk factors

Infant crying elicits caregiving behaviors, which are indispensable for fulfilling the infant's needs. However, infant crying can also evoke negative and angry feelings in the caregiver. Therefore, parents need to regulate their own negative emotions to infant crying to sensitively respond to the distressed infant. Thus, the current study aims to examine the neural basis of emotional reactivity and emotional regulation in response to infant crying using functional MRI in primiparous mothers (N = 26). Amygdala activation in response to infant crying was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity and maternal nonhostility during mother-infant interaction. Furthermore, subjective emotional intensity and bilateral activations in the amygdala were decreased using distraction as emotion-regulation strategy. This finding adds neural evidence to the importance of maternal emotion-regulation in response to infant distress. This might be particularly important as some mothers may become overwhelmed by their infant's distress resulting in intense negative emotions that could potentially impair mother-child interaction and increase child abuse potential. (PsycINFO Database Record

Background Adolescent motherhood is accompanied by a constellation of risk factors that translate into developmental risk for the off-spring. Socioeconomic risk that is associated with adolescent motherhood as well as maternal interactive behaviors may contribute to the impact of adolescent motherhood on children’s developmental outcome. Objective Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate differences in children’s cognitive development between children of adolescent and adult mothers in their first two years of life and to examine whether socioeconomic risk (e.g. such as educational and financial problems) and/or maternal sensitivity mediate developmental differences between children of adolescent and adult mothers. Methods Adolescent mothers ( 25 years; N = 34) and their infants were included in the current study. Child cognitive development and maternal sensitivity were assessed at three different time points (T1: mean child age 5.26 months; T2: mean child age 14.69 months; T3: mean child age 21.16 months). Results Children of adult mothers showed better cognitive performance at T3 compared to children of adolescent mothers but not at T1 and T2. A multiple mediation model including socioeconomic risk and maternal sensitivity as serial mediators demonstrated that the effect of adolescent motherhood on cognitive development was mediated in a causal effect chain with socioeconomic risk negatively affecting maternal sensitivity and maternal sensitivity affecting children’s cognitive development. Discussion The present findings demonstrate that maternal interactive behaviors are not only a simple predictor of cognitive development but may also act as a mediator of the association between more distal variables such as socioeconomic risk and cognitive development in adolescent mothers. This supports the need to promote prevention and intervention programs for adolescent mothers during the early postpartum period to reduce socioeconomic problems and enhance maternal interactive behaviors.

Previous studies have shown that adolescent mothers interact less sensitively with their infants than do adult mothers. This difference might be due to developmental difficulties in the recognition of infants’ emotional states in adolescents. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to explore differences in the recognition of infant signals between nonparous adolescent girls and boys as compared to female and male adults. To this end, we examined 54 childless adolescents and 54 childless adults (50% female). Participants were shown a series of 20 short videos of infants aged 3 to 6 months presenting different emotional states ranging from very distressed to very happy. In addition, participants were asked to report their own parental experiences using the German version, Fragebogen zum erinnerten elterlichen Erziehungsverhalten (J. Schumacher, M. Eisemann, & E. Brahler, 1999), of the Egna Minnen Befraffande Uppfostran (Own Memories of Parental Rearing Experiences in Childhood; C. Perris, L. Jacobsson, H. Lindstrom, L. von Knorring, & H. Perris, 1980). Adolescents rated distressed infants as more distressed than did the adults. Furthermore, female participants rated the very distressed infants as more distressed than did male participants. These data suggest that adolescents, in general, are not impaired in recognizing infant emotional states, as compared to adults. Thus, we suggest that more extreme ratings of infant signals of discomfort together with immature sociocognitive regulation processes during adolescence might contribute to reduced sensitivity observed in adolescent mothers.

It has been suggested that an early deficit in the human mirror neuron system (MNS) is an important feature of autism. Recent findings related to simple hand and finger movements do not support a general dysfunction of the MNS in autism. Studies investigating facial actions (e.g., emotional expressions) have been more consistent, however, mostly relied on passive observation tasks. We used a new variant of a compatibility task for the assessment of automatic facial mimicry responses that allowed for simultaneous control of attention to facial stimuli. We used facial electromyography in 18 children and adolescents with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 18 typically developing controls (TDCs). We observed a robust compatibility effect in ASD, that is, the execution of a facial expression was facilitated if a congruent facial expression was observed. Time course analysis of RT distributions and comparison to a classic compatibility task (symbolic Simon task) revealed that the facial compatibility effect appeared early and increased with time, suggesting fast and sustained activation of motor codes during observation of facial expressions. We observed a negative correlation of the compatibility effect with age across participants and in ASD, and a positive correlation between self-rated empathy and congruency for smiling faces in TDC but not in ASD. This pattern of results suggests that basic motor mimicry is intact in ASD, but is not associated with complex social cognitive abilities such as emotion understanding and empathy. Autism Res 2017, 10: 298-310. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Background Non-invasive imaging techniques, such as fNIRS, allow us to shed light on the neural correlates of infant’s social-emotional development within the context of parent-infant interaction. On a behavioral level, numerous studies have investigated parent-infant interaction employing the still-face paradigm and found that the primary caregiver(s), often the mother, is an important coregulator of the infant’s physiological and behavioral stress response. However, limited information is available on how the infant’s brain reacts to the maternal cues during real-life interaction. Methods Therefore, the main aim of the current study was to design a fNIRS paradigm to study live mother-infant interaction and to explore the neural correlates of infant affect regulation during real-life dyadic interaction. To this end, a modified still-face paradigm was designed, which consists of live face-to-face mother-infant, and stranger-infant, interaction episodes, including stressful, “still-face” and non-stressful, “happy-face” interaction blocks, combined with infant fNIRS imaging. Results Hemodynamic brain responses were collected in n = 10 (6 females, mean age 230.2 ± 17.5 days), typically developing infants using the Hitachi ETG-4000 continuous-wave system (22 channels spanning the frontal cortex; 10 Hz system sampling frequency). Infants with usable data (n = 7) showed negative activations, indicated by a decrease in oxygenated hemoglobin, over the middle frontal gyrus in response to happy-face (reunion) interaction with their mothers compared to a female stranger; suggesting deactivation of brain regions associated with affect regulation. We also explored correlations between infant brain responses to maternal interaction and infant characteristics (temperament) as well as experiential/environmental factors (mothers’ self-reported depression symptoms). Conclusions Although the current results are very preliminary, they overall suggest that live design in infant populations is doable and offers unique opportunities to study the neural mechanisms underlying early caregiver(s)-child interaction in a more naturalistic context. Restrictions, and implications, of the methodology are critically discussed.

Background Previous studies have reported that cognitive deficits occur in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and that these deficits may represent a predisposition towards developing AN or perpetuate the disorder. Specifically, dysfunctional implicit learning may contribute to the development of highly resistant dieting behaviours that are fundamental to the persistence of the disorder. Thus, the aims of this study were (a) to investigate implicit sequence learning in adolescent patients with AN before and after weight recovery and (b) to elucidate the associated neural mechanisms in acute AN relative to healthy controls. Methods In a behavioural study, implicit sequence learning was assessed using a serial reaction time task in 27 adolescents with AN before (T1) and after weight recovery (T2) compared with age-matched healthy controls (HC) who were assessed at similar time intervals. The neural correlates of implicit sequence learning were subsequently investigated in 19 AN patients shortly after they were admitted to the hospital and 20 HC using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Results At T1, AN patients showed reduced sequence learning compared with HC. However, no behavioural differences between HC and AN patients were found at T2. At the neural level, acute AN patients showed reduced thalamic activation during sequence learning compared with HC subjects. Conclusions Our data suggest that the impaired implicit learning observed in adolescent AN patients before weight gain is a state-related dysfunction that normalises with weight gain. Thus, implicit learning deficits do not appear to represent a predisposition towards developing AN; rather, these deficits should be considered when planning psychotherapeutic interventions for acute AN. Reduced thalamic activation during the acute stage of AN may indicate a starvation-induced dysfunction of the neural circuitry that is involved in behavioural flexibility.

Jugendliche Mütter und ihre Kinder sind multiplen psychosozialen Risikofaktoren ausgesetzt und stellen eine Hochrisikogruppe für ungünstige Entwicklungsverläufe dar. Psychosoziale Risiken wie Armut, Gewalterfahrungen, dysfunktionale familiäre Beziehungen oder eine psychiatrische Erkrankung, die die Entstehung einer Schwangerschaft im Teenageralter begünstigen, und die erheblichen Belastungen, die eine Elternschaft während der eigenen Entwicklungssituation in der Adoleszenz mit sich bringt, tragen eher zu den Entwicklungsrisiken der Kinder adoleszenter Mütter bei als das Alter der Mutter allein. Konsequenzen früher Mutterschaft können niedrigere Bildung und materielle Unsicherheit sein. Ebenso liegt ein erhöhtes Risiko für Psychopathologie sowohl bei den adoleszenten Müttern als auch bei den Kindern vor. Dieser Artikel soll einen Überblick über den aktuellen Forschungsstand geben. Es werden Risikofaktoren für frühe Mutterschaft erörtert und diese in Zusammenhang mit dem Erziehungsverhalten adoleszenter Mütter und den Entwicklungsverläufen ihrer Kinder gesetzt. Im Anschluss werden einige Interventionsprogramme für adoleszente Mütter und ihre Kinder vorgestellt. Weitere Forschung ist nötig, um altersangemessene Unterstützungsangebote für jugendliche Mütter und ihre Kinder zu entwickeln, die der Komplexität der Risiken gerecht werden und die Entwicklungsverläufe positiv beeinflussen.

A functional polymorphism within the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) has been reported to modulate emotionality and risk for affective disorders. The short (S) allele has less functional efficacy than the long (L) allele and has been associated with enhanced emotional reactivity. One possible contributing factor to the high emotionality in S carriers may be inefficient use of cognitive strategies such as reappraisal to regulate emotional responses. The aim of the present study was to test whether the 5-HTTLPR genotype modulates the neural correlates of emotion regulation. To determine neural differences between S and L allele carriers during reappraisal of negative emotions, 15 homozygous S (S'/S') and 15 homozygous L (L'/L') carriers underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), while performing an instructed emotion regulation task including downregulation, upregulation and passive viewing of negative emotional pictures. Compared to L'/L' allele carriers, subjects who carry the S'/S' allele responded with lower posterior insula and prefrontal brain activation during passive perception of negative emotional information but showed greater prefrontal activation and anterior insula activation during down- and upregulation of negative emotional responses. The current results support and extend previous findings of enhanced emotionality in S carriers by providing additional evidence of 5-HTTLPR modulation of volitional emotion regulation.

Background: Dyadic interactions between children and depressed mothers have been characterized as less synchronous and with lower maternal sensitivity, fostering an inharmonious, insecure attachment relationship between mother and child. Thus, these children may experience enhanced early life stress and are at higher risk of disturbed socioemotional development. Recently, this association has also been found in women with mild depressive symptoms. However, potential confounding effects of mother's history of own rearing experiences or infant temperament on the link between depressive symptoms and postnatal mother-to-infant attachment have not yet been investigated. Methods: Differences in mother-to-infant attachment (e.g. quality of attachment, absence of hostility, and pleasure in interaction) between mothers with and without symptoms of depression 6-8 months postpartum were analyzed in a low-risk community sample (n = 38, 19 per group). Depressive symptomatology was measured with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). Depressed mothers indicated mild-to-moderate depressive symptomatology (mean BDI-II 11.26 ± 3.86) but did not fulfill criteria for a major depressive episode and, thus, were referred to as ‘subclinically' depressed. Potential confounders, namely maternal history of own rearing experiences and infant temperament, were explored by multivariate AN(C)OVA. Results: Primiparous mothers with subclinical depression differed significantly from healthy control mothers, i.e. showed poorer mother-to-infant attachment and higher infant-related hostility 6-8 months postpartum. As expected, infant temperament and mother's history of own rearing experiences were both associated with mother-to-infant attachment but did not explain the negative effects of subclinical depression on the mother-infant relationship. Conclusions: Given the high prevalence of maternal depression, the current findings give reason for increased concern for the developing mother-child relationship. Therefore, early interventions are needed that focus on the mother-child dyad and target not only clinically but also subclinically depressed mothers.

It has been suggested that an early deficit in the human mirror neuron system (MNS) is an important feature of autism. Recent findings related to simple hand and finger movements do not support a general dysfunction of the MNS in autism. Studies investigating facial actions (e.g., emotional expressions) have been more consistent, however, mostly relied on passive observation tasks. We used a new variant of a compatibility task for the assessment of automatic facial mimicry responses that allowed for simultaneous control of attention to facial stimuli. We used facial electromyography in 18 children and adolescents with Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 18 typically developing controls (TDCs). We observed a robust compatibility effect in ASD, that is, the execution of a facial expression was facilitated if a congruent facial expression was observed. Time course analysis of RT distributions and comparison to a classic compatibility task (symbolic Simon task) revealed that the facial compatibility effect appeared early and increased with time, suggesting fast and sustained activation of motor codes during observation of facial expressions. We observed a negative correlation of the compatibility effect with age across participants and in ASD, and a positive correlation between self-rated empathy and congruency for smiling faces in TDC but not in ASD. This pattern of results suggests that basic motor mimicry is intact in ASD, but is not associated with complex social cognitive abilities such as emotion understanding and empathy. Autism Res 2017, 10: 298-310. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Background & aims: Reduced brain serotonin function is involved in stress-related disturbances and may particularly occur under chronic stress. Although serotonin production directly depends on the availability of its plasma dietary amino acid precursor tryptophan (TRP), previously described effects of tryptophan-rich food sources on stress-related behavior are rather modest. Recently, an egg protein hydrolysate (EPH) was developed that showed a much greater effect on brain TRP availability than pure TRP and other TRP-food sources and therefore may be more effective for performance under stress. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of EPH compared to placebo protein on plasma amino acids, stress coping and performance in subjects with high and low chronic stress vulnerabilities.Methods: In a placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover study, 17 participants with high and 18 participants with low chronic stress vulnerabilities were monitored for mood and performance under acute stress exposure either following intake of EPH or placebo.Results: EPH significantly increased plasma TRP availability for uptake into the brain, decreased depressive mood in all subjects and improved perceptual-motor and vigilance performance only in low chronic stress-vulnerable subjects.Conclusions: The acute use of a TRP-rich egg protein hydrolysate (EPH) is an adequate method to increase plasma TRP for uptake into the brain and may be beneficial for perceptual-motor and vigilance performance in healthy volunteers.

Correcting for motion is an important consideration in infant functional near-infrared spectroscopy studies. We tested the performance of conventional motion correction methods and compared probe motion and data quality metrics for data collected at different infant ages (5, 7, and 12 months) and during different methods of stimulus presentation (video versus live). While 5-month-olds had slower maximum head speed than 7- or 12-month-olds, data quality metrics and hemodynamic response recovery errors were similar across ages. Data quality was also similar between video and live stimulus presentation. Motion correction algorithms, such as wavelet filtering and targeted principal component analysis, performed well for infant data using infant-specific parameters, and parameters may be used without fine-tuning for infant age or method of stimulus presentation. We recommend using wavelet filtering with [Formula: see text]; however, a range of parameters seemed acceptable. We do not recommend using trial rejection alone, because it did not improve hemodynamic response recovery as compared to no correction at all. Data quality metrics calculated from uncorrected data were associated with hemodynamic response recovery error, indicating that full simulation studies may not be necessary to assess motion correction performance.

Rationale Reduced brain serotonin function is acknowledged as a vulnerability factor for affective disturbances. Since the production of serotonin is limited by the availability of its plasma dietary amino acid precursor tryptophan (TRP), the beneficial effects of tryptophan-rich alpha-lactalbumin whey protein (ALAC) have recently been studied. The effects of ALAC remain rather modest, and alternative protein sources of tryptophan may be more effective. Objectives We tested whether hydrolyzed protein (HPROT) has greater effects on the plasma TRP/large neutral amino acids (LNAA) ratio and mood than intact ALAC protein in healthy volunteers. Materials and methods In a double-blind, randomized cross-over study, plasma amino acids and mood were repeatedly measured in 18 healthy subjects before and after intake of ALAC and HPROT as well as after placebo protein, pure tryptophan, and a tryptophan-containing synthetic peptide. Except for the placebo protein, all interventions contained 0.8 g TRP. Results Significantly faster and greater increases in plasma TRP/LNAA were found after HPROT than after ALAC. In addition, the effects of HPROT on plasma TRP/LNAA were comparable with the effects of the tryptophan-containing synthetic peptide and even exceeded the effect of pure tryptophan. Sixty minutes after intake, mood was improved only following intake of HPROT and pure tryptophan, whereas longer-lasting mood effects were only found after intake of HPROT. Conclusions The use of a tryptophan-rich hydrolyzed protein source may be more adequate to increase brain tryptophan and 5-HT function compared with intact alpha-lactalbumin protein or pure tryptophan.

This study addressed how bilingual speakers switch between their first and second language when speaking. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) and naming latencies were measured while unbalanced German (L1)-Dutch (L2) speakers performed a picture-naming task. Participants named pictures either in their L1 or in their L2 (blocked language conditions), or participants switched between their first and second language unpredictably (mixed language condition). Furthermore, form similarity between translation equivalents (cognate status) was manipulated. A cognate facilitation effect was found for L1 and L2 indicating phonological activation of the non-response language in blocked and mixed language conditions. The ERP data also revealed small but reliable effects of cognate status. Language switching resulted in equal switching costs for both languages and was associated with a modulation in the ERP waveforms (time windows 275-375 ms and 375-475 ms). Mixed language context affected especially the L1, both in ERPs and in latencies, which became slower in L1 than L2. It is suggested that sustained and transient components of language control should be distinguished. Results are discussed in relation to current theories of bilingual language processing.

A genetic predisposition to depression may be a potential risk factor in the development of depression. Although the neurobiological equivaLent of the predisposition remains unclear, it seems as though the brain serotonin (5-HT) system pLays an important mediating role. Therefore, individuals with a family history of depression (FH+) may be more likely to develop depression due to an innate vulnerability related to altered serotonergic neurotransmission in the brain. A major problem, however, is that the role of brain 5-HT in depression is complex and this serotonin-related innate vulnerability, by itself, is not sufficient enough to cause a depressive episode. In the search for additional factors, stress has received particular attention. Stressful life events influence and precede the onset of depression. Furthermore, depression is associated with stress hormone dysregulation and bidirectional interactions are thought to occur between stress-related changes in the neuroendocrine stress system and the 5-HT system. In the current review, we argue that healthy individuaLs with a positive family history of depression are more prone to develop depression due to a genetic 5-HT susceptibility, which deteriorates stress coping mechanisms and increases stress vulnerability.

Trials 16(1), 230 (2015). doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0747-5, Published by BioMed Central, London

Adolescent mothers and their children are exposed to multiple psychosocial risk factors and represent a high-risk group for adverse developmental outcomes. It is not the mother's young age alone which contributes to the developmental risk of the mother-child dyad. Rather, both the combination of risks, such as poverty, domestic violence, dysfunctional family relationships, or a psychiatric disorder, all of which predispose to adolescent pregnancy, as well as the strains of parenthood during the mother's own developmental stage add to the psychosocial risks of children of teenage mothers. Early motherhood can lead to lower levels of education and a lower socioeconomic status. In addition, there is a higher risk for psychopathology in both the teenage mother and her child. This article provides an overview of the current research findings regarding adolescent parenting and its associated risks. Risk factors leading to early motherhood are reviewed and associated with differences in parenting behaviors and the developmental outcomes of their children. This article will conclude with a short overview on intervention programs for adolescent mothers and their children. Further research is needed to develop age-appropriate support programs for adolescent mothers and their children to cope with the complexity of risks and improve their developmental trajectories.Jugendliche Mütter und ihre Kinder sind multiplen psychosozialen Risikofaktoren ausgesetzt und stellen eine Hochrisikogruppe für ungünstige Entwicklungsverläufe dar. Psychosoziale Risiken wie Armut, Gewalterfahrungen, dysfunktionale familiäre Beziehungen oder eine psychiatrische Erkrankung, die die Entstehung einer Schwangerschaft im Teenageralter begünstigen, und die erheblichen Belastungen, die eine Elternschaft während der eigenen Entwicklungssituation in der Adoleszenz mit sich bringt, tragen eher zu den Entwicklungsrisiken der Kinder adoleszenter Mütter bei als das Alter der Mutter allein. Konsequenzen früher Mutterschaft können niedrigere Bildung und materielle Unsicherheit sein. Ebenso liegt ein erhöhtes Risiko für Psychopathologie sowohl bei den adoleszenten Müttern als auch bei den Kindern vor. Dieser Artikel soll einen Überblick über den aktuellen Forschungsstand geben. Es werden Risikofaktoren für frühe Mutterschaft erörtert und diese in Zusammenhang mit dem Erziehungsverhalten adoleszenter Mütter und den Entwicklungsverläufen ihrer Kinder gesetzt. Im Anschluss werden einige Interventionsprogramme für adoleszente Mütter und ihre Kinder vorgestellt. Weitere Forschung ist nötig, um altersangemessene Unterstützungsangebote für jugendliche Mütter und ihre Kinder zu entwickeln, die der Komplexität der Risiken gerecht werden und die Entwicklungsverläufe positiv beeinflussen.

Background Adolescence is the phase of life between late childhood and adulthood. Typically, adolescents seek diversion, new experiences, and strong emotions, sometimes putting their health at serious risk. In Germany, for example, 62% of all deaths among persons aged 15 to 20 are due to traumatic injuries. Neuroscientific explanations have been proposed for typical adolescent behavior; with these explanations in mind, one can derive appropriate ways of dealing with adolescents. Method We selectively review pertinent articles retrieved from the PubMed database about the structural and functional development of the brain in adolescence. Results New findings in developmental psychology and neuroscience reveal that a fundamental reorganization of the brain takes place in adolescence. In postnatal brain development, the maximum density of gray matter is reached first in the primary sensorimotor cortex, and the prefrontal cortex matures last. Subcortical brain areas, especially the limbic system and the reward system, develop earlier, so that there is an imbalance during adolescence between the more mature subcortical areas and less mature prefrontal areas. This may account for typical adolescent behavior patterns, including risk-taking. Conclusion The high plasticity of the adolescent brain permits environmental influences to exert particularly strong effects on cortical circuitry. While this makes intellectual and emotional development possible, it also opens the door to potentially harmful influences.

Adolescence is the phase of life between late childhood and adulthood. Typically, adolescents seek diversion, new experiences, and strong emotions, sometimes putting their health at serious risk. In Germany, for example, 62% of all deaths among persons aged 15 to 20 are due to traumatic injuries. Neuroscientific explanations have been proposed for typical adolescent behavior; with these explanations in mind, one can derive appropriate ways of dealing with adolescents.We selectively review pertinent articles retrieved from the PubMed database about the structural and functional development of the brain in adolescence.New findings in developmental psychology and neuroscience reveal that a fundamental reorganization of the brain takes place in adolescence. In postnatal brain development, the maximum density of gray matter is reached first in the primary sensorimotor cortex, and the prefrontal cortex matures last. Subcortical brain areas, especially the limbic system and the reward system, develop earlier, so that there is an imbalance during adolescence between the more mature subcortical areas and less mature prefrontal areas. This may account for typical adolescent behavior patterns, including risk-taking.The high plasticity of the adolescent brain permits environmental influences to exert particularly strong effects on cortical circuitry. While this makes intellectual and emotional development possible, it also opens the door to potentially harmful influences.

Summary Background & aims It is suggested that stress particularly in subjects with high cognitive reactivity (CR), a psychological vulnerability marker of depression, may increase or even induce serotonergic vulnerability, which in turn may lead to reduced serotonin (5-HT) function, decreased stress coping and an increased risk to develop depressive symptoms. The aim of the present study was to investigate the beneficial effects of 5-HT augmentation through a tryptophan-rich hydrolyzed protein (HP) on mood and stress coping in subjects with high and low CR. We hypothesized that subjects with high CR are more responsive to the beneficial effects of HP than subjects with low CR particularly after acute stress exposure. Methods In a double-blind, crossover study, participants’ mood and cortisol was assessed before and after acute stress exposure either following intake of HP or a standard casein protein (CP) as control condition. Results HP significantly increased positive mood in all subjects and dampened the cortisol response to acute stress. No differences were found between high and low CR subjects. Conclusions To conclude, because dietary treatment with HP has beneficial effects on mood and physiological stress coping in both high and low CR subjects, HP may be a good dietary method for augmenting brain TRP and 5-HT and thus 5-HT linked stress resilience.

RATIONALE: Polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) may be associated with increased vulnerability to acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) and depression vulnerability especially following stressful life events. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of ATD in subjects with different 5-HTTLPR profiles before and after stress exposure on affective and cognitive-attentional changes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eighteen subjects with homozygotic short alleles (S'/S') and 17 subjects with homozygotic long alleles (L'/L') of the 5-HTTLPR participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design to measure the effects of ATD on mood, memory, and attention before and after acute stress exposure. RESULTS: ATD lowered mood in all subjects independent of genotype. In S'/S' genotypes, mild acute stress increased depressive mood and in L'/L' genotypes increased feelings of vigor. Furthermore, S'/S' genotypes differed from L'/L' genotypes on measures of attention independent of treatment and memory following ATD. CONCLUSIONS: Polymorphisms of the 5-HTTLPR differentially affect responses to mild stress and ATD, suggesting greater vulnerability of S'/S' carriers to serotonergic manipulations and supporting increased depression vulnerability.

Rationale Individuals with a family history of depression may be more likely to develop depression due to an innate vulnerability of their serotonergic system. However, even though serotonergic vulnerability may constitute a risk factor in the development of depression, it does not seem to be sufficient to cause a depressive episode. Based on previous data, it is suggested that stress may be a mediating factor. Objectives This study examined the role of serotonin (5-HT) in stress coping in individuals with or without a family history of depression. Materials and methods Nineteen healthy first-degree relatives of depressive patients (FH+) and 19 healthy controls without a family history of depression (FH-) were tested in a double-blind placebo-controlled design for affective processing under acute stress exposure, following acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) or placebo. Results Significant negative effects were found of stress on affective processing in FH- and FH+. In addition, FH- responded slower to positive words after stress only following ATD, whereas FH+ responded marginally slower under stress already after placebo and before stress following ATD. Conclusion Acute stress exposure reduces positive affective bias; supporting the role of stress as an important predecessor in the development of depression. Furthermore, FH+ may be more susceptible than FH- to the negative effects of stress as well as to the negative effects of ATD. The results support the assumption that the 5-HT system is involved in stress resilience and may be more vulnerable in first-degree relatives of depression.

Major depression (MD) is one of the most common disease burdens throughout the world. Understanding the pathophysiology of MD is therefore a major challenge in psychology and psychiatry. One major risk factor for MD is stress. However, the risk of depression after stressful life events is much greater in individuals with possession of the short variant (S) compared to the long variant (L) of the serotonin transporter polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). But why?One intriguing possibility is that 5-HTTLPR-S carriers show reduced cognitive downregulation of negative emotional information, through which negative emotional information is easily interpreted as stressful thereby increasing the risk of depression. In support of this hypothesis, a hyperresponsiveness (i.e. in 5-HTTLPR-S carriers compared to 5-HTTLPR-L carriers) of the amygdala in response to emotionally negative information has been found. Further, amygdala reactivity is negatively correlated with cognitive down regulation (cognitive reappraisal) of emotionally negative information.To explore the effect of cognitive reappraisal on neural and behavioral emotional responses, instructed emotion regulation (i.e. instructing participants to down-regulate or up-regulate the impact of negative emotional stimuli by reinterpreting the meaning of an emotional event) can be applied.Therefore, the main aim of the current study is to investigate whether the effects of cognitive reappraisal of negative emotional information (by instructed reappraisal) on neural and behavioral emotional responses is modulated by 5-HTTLPR genotype using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).