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OBJECTIVE To assess the mental health and experience of sport-related harassment and abuse of elite aquatic athletes and to analyze it in relation to gender and discipline. DESIGN Cross-sectional study using an anonymous survey. SETTING The FINA World Championships 2019. PARTICIPANTS Registered athletes in the disciplines of swimming, diving, high diving, water polo, artistic swimming, and open water swimming. INTERVENTIONS Athletes completed an online or paper-based questionnaire. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The main outcome measures included screening for depression (10-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale revised), eating disorders (Brief Eating Disorders in Athletes Questionnaire), the subjective need for psychotherapeutic support, and the experience of sport-related harassment and/or abuse. RESULTS A quarter (24.6%) of the 377 responding athletes were classified as depressed and 2.5% as having an eating disorder. More than 40% of the athletes stated that they wanted or needed psychotherapeutic support. Fifty-one athletes (14.9%) had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves, and 31 (9%) had witnessed it in another athlete. The experiences of harassment and abuse ranged from unwanted comments about body or appearance (40.2%) to rewards in sport for sexual favors (2.5%) and rape (0.3%). Athletes who had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves had higher average scores for depression and eating disorders, and more of them felt they needed psychotherapeutic support. Up to a third would not talk or report to anybody if they saw or experienced harassment/abuse, and less than 20% would talk to an official for help. CONCLUSION Targeted initiatives are required to address mental health issues and harassment and abuse in sport in the FINA aquatic disciplines.

A new stubby-root nematode belonging to the Trichodorus sparsus complex was found in association with serious damage to Hill’s Yew hedges (Taxus x media ´Hillii´) in Oslo in 2017, characterised by chlorosis, wilting and loss of needles. T. hellalae n. sp. is about 800 μm long with medium-sized onchiostyle (55 μm, average), characterized in male by two ventromedian cervical papillae located beyond the onchiostyle region and with the secretory excretory pore (SE-pore) in between, in most type specimens, three ventromedian precloacal supplements with the posteriormost one opposite the anterior end of spicule manubrium and spicules 40 μm long (average) with widened manubrium, gradually tapered to a narrower blade without ornamentation of striae or bristles, but showing a minor indentation at level of posterior border of capsule of suspensor muscles. Gubernaculum with thickened keel-like posterior end and a thickened refractive anterior border. Females are characterised by a short pear-shaped vagina, less than 1/3rd of corresponding body width and very small rounded triangular vaginal sclerotized pieces in longitudinal optical section and vulva pore-like in ventral view; on each body side one sublateral body pore at about 3.5 body width anterior to vulva and one postadvulvar body pore. According to D2-D3 analyses, the Trichodorus hellalae n. sp. sequences are embedded in a maximally supported clade with several T. variabilis lineages. However, morphological and molecular species delimitation both support Trichodorus hellalae n. sp. as being a new species. Therefore, T. variabilis now appears to in fact consists of several cryptic species.

ObjectiveTo assess the mental health and experience of sport-related harassment and abuse of athletes participating in the FINA World Championships 2019, and to analyse it in relation to gender and the aquatic disciplines.DesignCross-sectional study using an anonymous questionnaire.MethodsDuring the Championships, registered athletes (swimmers, divers, high divers, water polo players, artistic swimmers, open-water swimmers) completed a survey including the main outcome measures of depression (CES-D-10), eating disorders (BEDA-Q), the subjective need for psychotherapeutic support, and the experience of harassment and/or abuse in their sports environment.ResultsA quarter of the athletes (n=62, 24.6%) were classified as depressed and more than a third (n=111, 35.0%) as having an eating disorder. More than 40% of the athletes stated that they wanted or needed psychotherapeutic support for mental health problems. Fifty-one athletes (14.9%) had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves, and 31 (9%) had witnessed it in another athlete. The experiences of harassment and abuse ranged from unwanted comments about body or appearance (40.2%) to rewards in sport for sexual favours (2.5%) and rape (0.3%). Athletes who had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves had higher average scores for depression and eating disorders, and more of them needed psychotherapeutic support. Up to a third would not talk to anybody if they saw or experienced harassment/abuse, and less than 20% would talk to an official for help.ConclusionTargeted initiatives are required to address the burden of mental health issues and harassment and abuse in sport in the FINA aquatic disciplines.

To assess the mental health and experience of sport-related harassment and abuse of elite aquatic athletes and to analyze it in relation to gender and discipline.Cross-sectional study using an anonymous survey.The FINA World Championships 2019.Registered athletes in the disciplines of swimming, diving, high diving, water polo, artistic swimming, and open water swimming.Athletes completed an online or paper-based questionnaire.The main outcome measures included screening for depression (10-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale revised), eating disorders (Brief Eating Disorders in Athletes Questionnaire), the subjective need for psychotherapeutic support, and the experience of sport-related harassment and/or abuse.A quarter (24.6%) of the 377 responding athletes were classified as depressed and 2.5% as having an eating disorder. More than 40% of the athletes stated that they wanted or needed psychotherapeutic support. Fifty-one athletes (14.9%) had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves, and 31 (9%) had witnessed it in another athlete. The experiences of harassment and abuse ranged from unwanted comments about body or appearance (40.2%) to rewards in sport for sexual favors (2.5%) and rape (0.3%). Athletes who had experienced harassment/abuse in sport themselves had higher average scores for depression and eating disorders, and more of them felt they needed psychotherapeutic support. Up to a third would not talk or report to anybody if they saw or experienced harassment/abuse, and less than 20% would talk to an official for help.Targeted initiatives are required to address mental health issues and harassment and abuse in sport in the FINA aquatic disciplines.

Summary Enset (Ensete ventricosum) is an important starch staple crop, cultivated primarily in south and southwestern Ethiopia. Enset is the main crop of a sustainable indigenous African system that ensures food security in a country that is food deficient. Related to the banana family, enset is similarly affected by plant-parasitic nematodes. Plant-parasitic nematodes impose a huge constraint on agriculture. The distribution, population density and incidence of plant-parasitic nematodes of enset was determined during August 2018. A total of 308 fields were sampled from major enset-growing zones of Ethiopia. Eleven plant-parasitic nematode taxa were identified, with Pratylenchus (lesion nematode) being the most prominent genus present with a prominence value of 1460. It was present in each sample, with a highest mean population density per growing zone of 16 050 (10 g root)−1, although densities as high as 25 000 were observed in fields at higher altitudes in Guraghe (2200-3000 m a.s.l.). This lesion nematode is found in abundance in the cooler mountainous regions. Visible damage on the roots and corms was manifested as dark purple lesions. Using a combination of morphometric and molecular data, all populations were identified as P. goodeyi and similar to populations from Kenya, Uganda and Spain (Tenerife). Differences in population densities amongst cultivars indicate possible resistance of enset to P. goodeyi.

1. Due to globalisation, trade and transport, the spread of alien species is increasing dramatically. Some alien species become ecologically harmful by threatening native biota. This can lead to irreversible changes in local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, and, ultimately, to biotic homogenisation. 2. We risk-assessed all alien plants, animals, fungi and algae, within certain delimitations, that are known to reproduce in Norway. Mainland Norway and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard plus Jan Mayen were treated as separate assessment areas. Assessments followed the Generic Ecological Impact Assessment of Alien Species (GEIAA) protocol, which uses a fully quantitative set of criteria. 3. A total of 1519 species were risk-assessed, of which 1183 were species reproducing in mainland Norway. Among these, 9% were assessed to have a severe impact, 7% high impact, 7% potentially high impact, and 49% low impact, whereas 29% had no known impact. In Svalbard, 16 alien species were reproducing, one of which with a severe impact. 4. The impact assessments also covered 319 so-called door-knockers, i.e. species that are likely to establish in Norway within 50 years, and 12 regionally alien species. Of the door-knockers, 8% and 10% were assessed to have a severe and high impact, respectively. 5. The impact category of most species was driven by negative interactions with native species, transformation of threatened ecosystems, or genetic contamination. The proportion of alien species with high or severe impact varied significantly across the different pathways of introduction, taxonomic groups, time of introduction, and the environments colonised, but not across continents of origin. 6. Given the large number of alien species reproducing in Norway and the preponderance of species with low impact, it is neither realistic nor necessary to eradicate all of them. Our results can guide management authorities in two ways. First, the use of quantitative assessment criteria facilitates the prioritisation of management resources across species. Second, the background information collected for each species, such as introduction pathways, area of occupancy and ecosystems affected, helps designing appropriate management measures. 1. Globalisering, handel og transport fører til en dramatisk økning i spredningen av fremmede arter. Noen fremmede arter er skadelige og truer det stedegne naturmangfoldet. Lokalt kan dette medføre irreversible endringer i det lokale biologiske mangfoldet og økosystemenes funksjon; globalt en homogenisering av artssammensetningen. 2. Vi har gjennomført risikovurderinger av alle fremmede planter, dyr, sopper og alger som reproduserer i Norge og oppfyller visse avgrensninger. Svalbard og Jan Mayen ble behandla som et eget vurderingsområde, adskilt fra Fastlands‐Norge. Risikovurderingene ble gjort i tråd med GEIAA (Generic Ecological Impact Assessment of Alien Species), som benytter et rent kvantitativt kriteriesett. 3. Totalt ble 1519 arter risikovurdert, hvorav 1183 reproduserte i Fastlands‐Norge. Av disse ble 9 % vurdert til å utgjøre en svært høy risiko, 7 % en høy risiko, 7 % en potensielt høy risiko, 49 % en lav risiko og 29 % ingen kjent risiko. På Svalbard forekom 16 reproduserende fremmede arter, hvorav én med svært høy risiko. 4. Risikovurderingene omfatta også 319 såkalte dørstokkarter, dvs. fremmede arter som antas å kunne etablere seg i Norge innen 50 år, samt 12 regionalt fremmede arter. Blant dørstokkartene ble 8 % og 10 % vurdert til å utgjøre en svært høy respektive høy risiko. 5. For de fleste arter ble risikokategorien bestemt av artenes interaksjoner med stedegne arter, tilstandsendringer i trua naturtyper eller genetisk forurensning. Andelen av fremmede arter med høy eller svært høy risiko varierte signifikant på tvers av ulike introduksjonsveier, artsgrupper, tidspunkt for introduksjon og koloniserte naturtyper, men ikke på tvers av opphavsområder. 6. Gitt det store antallet av fremmede arter som reproduserer i Norge, og overvekten av arter som har lav risiko, er det verken realistisk eller nødvendig å utrydde alle. Resultatene våre kan hjelpe forvaltningsmyndighetene på to måter. For det første gjør bruken av kvantitative kriterier det lettere å prioritere ressurser på tvers av arter. For det andre kan passende forvaltningstiltak utarbeides på grunnlag av den innsamla bakgrunnsinformasjonen om artene, f.eks. deres spredningsveier, forekomstareal og berørte naturtyper. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use,distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.c 2020 The Authors. Ecological Solutions and Evidence published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Ecological Society

This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Biological Invasions. The final authenticated version is available online at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-019-02058-x. We present the results of an inventory and status assessment of alien species in Norway. The inventory covered all known multicellular neobiota, 2496 in total, 1039 of which were classified as naturalised. The latter constitute c. 3% of all species known to be stably reproducing in Norway. These figures are higher than expected from Norway’s latitude, which may be due a combination of climatic and historical factors, as well as sampling effort. Most of the naturalised neobiota were plants (71%),followed by animals (21%) and fungi (8%). The main habitat types colonised were open lowlands (79%), urban environments (52%) and woodlands (42%). The main areas of origin were Europe (67%), North America (15%) and Asia (13%). For most taxa, the rate of novel introductions seems to have been increasing during recent decades. Within Norway, the number of alien species recorded per county was negatively correlated with latitude and positively correlated with human population density. In the high-Arctic territories under Norwegian sovereignty, i.e. Svalbard and Jan Mayen, 104 alien species were recorded, of which 5 were naturalised.

Traditionally, a Service Level Agreement (SLA) is used as an appendix in IT Service Management agreements to set expectations and delineate the service delivery description as well as the terms and conditions of delivery. However, SLAs are unable to imply and guarantee the added values expected by the customer. Service Value Agreement (SVA) is a newly developed framework that identifies the deliverable added values along with metrics to measure the quality and quantity of achievements in terms of business added values. The objective of this study is to expand the concept of SVA for Application Management (AM) services and suggest guidelines for its implementation in real business cases. This goal is fulfilled through the case study approach and outsourcing industry contributions. Authors suggest discussing the concept of SVA from early stages of the sales lifecycle and implementing it gradually during the steady state phase. Combination of Service Value Mapping approach and Piloting method is suggested for SVA proposition as an option with successful practical history.

Traditionally, a Service Level Agreement (SLA) including service level metrics is used as an appendix in IT Service Management agreements to define the terms and conditions of delivery and set expectations. However, SLA neither implies nor guarantees the added values that are expected by the customer. Besides, due to the nature of IT services, there always exists uncertainty about the agreed services due to which the perceived risk for both customer and provider is high. Moreover, the quality and quantity of delivered values are mostly hidden by hazy marketing slogans. In order to guarantee the values of an offered service, the deliverable added values should be characterized properly, quantified by means of measurable metrics, and agreed upon between the two parties. Such comprehensive material, including the deliverable added values along with their measurable metrics, is called Service Value Agreement (SVA). This research proposes a platform for IT service offerings based on added values by identifying, as well as quantifying, an organization’s objectives in purchasing Application Management (AM) services from a provider firm.

The pinewood nematode (PWN) is one of the worst tree-killing exotic pests in East-Asian countries. The first European record of establishment in Portugal in 1999 triggered extensive surveys and contingency plans for eradication in European countries, including immediate removal of large areas of conifer host trees. Using Norway as an example, we applied a simulation model to evaluate the chance of successful eradication of a hypothetical introduction by the current contingency plan in a northern area where wilting symptoms are not expected to occur. Despite a highly variable spread of nematode infestations in space and time, the probability of successful eradication in 20 years was consistently low (mean 0.035, SE 0.02). The low success did not change significantly by varying the biological parameters in sensitivity analyses (SA), probably due to the late detection of infestations by the survey (mean 14.3 years). SA revealed a strong influence of management parameters. However, a high probability of eradication required unrealistic measures: achieving an eradication probability of 0.99 in 20 years required 10,000 survey samples per year and a host tree removal radius of 8,000 m around each detection point.

Protein variability of 27 populations of cyst nematodes belonging to the Heterodera avenae complex were studied using isoelectric focusing (IEF). Sixteen Norwegian populations were compared with standard populations of H. avenae, H. filipjevi, H. mani and H. arenaria. Norwegian populations were also tested for pathotype on selected cereal cultivars. Based on differences in the protein banding pattern, eight clusters of populations could be recognised. Nine Norwegian populations grouped together with H. avenae standards. The three Swedish populations: Knislinge, Ringsåsen and Våxtorp, previously classified as H. avenae, differed from this species, from H. filipjevi and from each other. Four Norwegian populations clustered together with the Våxtorp population. Two Norwegian populations formed a cluster together with a Swedish H. filipjevi standard. The Norwegian population Brekstad differed from all other populations, as did the standards of H. mani and H. arenaria. Pathotype testing of the Norwegian populations identified ten populations as H. avenae pathotype Ha 11, while three were close to pathotype Ha 12. The two H. filipjevi populations were close to the Swedish pathotype west. The Brekstad population differed from all others also in host spectrum. This population and the Våxtorp-group demonstrate a complexity within the Norwegian cereal cyst nematodes that merits further investigation.

At EFSA’s request, the Plant Health Panel (PLH) performed an environmental risk assessment (ERA) of the apple snail for the EU and validated the ERA approach presented in the PLH ERA guidance document. Improvements and suggestions for simplification of the ERA are provided. One service-providing unit—shallow fresh water areas—was identified for this ERA. The effects of resistance, resilience and management on snail population dynamics in the short (5 years) and the long term (30 years) were estimated. In line with the PLH ERA guidance rating system, expert judgement was used to evaluate separately the impacts on (i) ecosystem traits, (ii) ecosystem services and (iii) biodiversity components. Snail biomass values were predicted to be higher in the short term than in the long term. For ecosystem services, moderate risk was estimated for genetic resources, climate regulation, pest and disease regulation and pollination in both the short and long term; for food, risk was assessed as moderate in the short term and major in the long term; for water and erosion regulation, risk was assessed as major both in the short term and in the long term; for fresh water, risk was assessed as massive both in the short term and in the long term; and for nutrient cycling and photosynthesis and primary production of macrophytes, risk was assessed as massive in the short term and as major in the long term. For biodiversity components, risk for genetic diversity and native species diversity was estimated as major in both the short and the long term; risk for native habitats was assessed massive in the short term and major in the long term; and for threatened species and habitats of high conservation value, risk was determined as massive in both the short and the long term.

The Panel conducted a risk assessment of Phyllosticta citricarpa for the EU. P. citricarpa causes citrus black spot (CBS) and is absent from the EU. Under the scenario of absence of specific risk reduction options against P. citricarpa, the risk of entry of P. citricarpa was rated as likely for citrus plants for planting and citrus fruit with leaves, moderately likely for citrus fruit without leaves, unlikely for citrus leaves for cooking and very unlikely for Tahiti lime fruit without leaves. Establishment was rated as moderately likely because susceptible hosts are widely available and environmental conditions in many EU citrus-growing areas are suitable (with high uncertainty) for P. citricarpa ascospore production, dispersal and infection. Current fungicide treatments will not prevent establishment. Environmental favourability is increased by the use of sprinkler and micro-sprinkler irrigation in some EU citrus-growing locations. Spread with trade was rated as moderately likely. Model results indicate that CBS epidemics are most likely to develop in EU citrus-growing areas in late summer to early autumn and in some locations also in late spring to early summer. CBS is expected to affect mainly lemons and late-maturing sweet orange and mandarin varieties, with moderate negative consequences for the production of fresh fruit, but with environmental impact of additional fungicide treatments. Negative consequences would be minor for early-maturing citrus varieties and minimal for citrus for processing. Uncertainty concerning the consequences is high, mainly because of the lack of data on critical climate response parameters for the pathogen but also because information on impact in areas at the limits of the current distribution is scarce. Since eradication and containment are difficult, phytosanitary measures should focus on preventing entry. Current phytosanitary measures are evaluated to be effective, with the exception of pest-free production sites.

The Panel on Plant Health assessed the risk to plant health from Phytophthora fragariae for the European Union and evaluated the current EU legislation and possible risk reduction options. The pest is present in most areas of Europe except southern Mediterranean regions. Entry through the plants for planting, but not seeds, pathway, is assessed as a major pathway, with the probability of entry rated as unlikely and the uncertainty as high. The probability of establishment is likely in the absence of existing disease control practices with low uncertainty. The probability of spread in the absence of a scheme for the production of certified plants for planting is considered to be very likely. With certification, spread is considered to be unlikely to moderately likely, depending on the inclusion of testing for the pathogen as part of certification. These ratings have medium uncertainty. Potential impact is rated as minor with medium uncertainty. The Panel evaluated the effectiveness of current EU legislation regarding the introduction and spread of P. fragariae. According to the regulation the import of Fragaria plants for planting, other than seeds, is prohibited from specified countries, whereas for import of these plants from other countries and for movement of these plants within the EU special requirements with respect to P. fragariae must be fulfilled. If the current legislation specific to P. fragariae were removed, no major consequences would be expected, unless the industry simultaneously ceased its voluntary certification activity. This is largely because of the important level of protection afforded to the industry by the widely used certification schemes for Fragaria, which significantly reduce the risks of entry, establishment, spread and impact. Certification schemes for the movement of Fragaria plants for planting offer the greatest efficiency and feasibility and the least uncertainty, especially if effective detection is incorporated into them.

The Panel on Plant Health assessed the risk to plant health of Strawberry mild yellow edge virus (SMYEV) for the European Union (EU) territory, and evaluated the current EU legislation and possible risk reduction options. This virus is widely distributed both within and outside Europe and the same applies to its main vector, the strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii. At-risk hosts (Fragaria spp.) occur widely in Europe. Plants for planting were identified as the most significant entry pathway and the probability of entry is rated as unlikely to moderately likely with high uncertainty. The probability of establishment is rated very likely with low uncertainty. The probability of local spread by natural means is moderately likely to likely, with medium uncertainty, whereas that of human-assisted long-distance spread is unlikely, with medium uncertainty. The potential consequences are rated as minimal to minor with medium uncertainty. Prohibition and restricting import or intra-EU trade to certified materials or to materials originating from pest-free areas or pest-free places of production are the options with highest effectiveness against the risks of introduction or against the risks of further spread. Prohibition and certification are also among the options of high or very high feasibility. In addition, it should be noted that the combination of options (cultural practices, certification, exclusion conditions, tolerant varieties) has an overall high to very high level of effectiveness and feasibility. The current legislation has few weaknesses: the reliance on inefficient visual inspection as well as the exceptions or derogations offered to some countries in which SMYEV is present. If the current legislation were removed, no major consequences would be expected unless the industry simultaneously ceased its widely adopted certification activity, which seems unlikely given the potential consequences.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health conducted a risk assessment of Didymella ligulicola (current name Stagonosporopsis chrysanthemi) for the European Union territory, identified risk management options and evaluated their effectiveness in reducing the risk to plant health posed by the organism. The Panel also evaluated the effectiveness of the present EU requirements (Council Directive 2000/29/EC) against this organism. S. chrysanthemi causes ray blight of Chrysanthemum × morifolium and is present in the EU. The Panel conducted the risk assessment considering the current EU plant health legislation in place and reached the following conclusions. The probability of entry of S. chrysanthemi into the EU on the Chrysanthemum × morifolium plants for planting pathway and the cut flowers pathway is unlikely with a medium uncertainty. The probabilities of establishment and spread of S. chrysanthemi in the EU are very likely with low uncertainties, as the host is extensively grown in the EU and the climatic conditions are suitable for infection, sporulation, spread and survival of the pathogen. The damage caused by the pathogen in the EU is currently minor because of the existing agricultural practices applied to chrysanthemum crops. No negative environmental impacts are foreseen. The effectiveness of the current EU requirement of visual inspection of host plant material in reducing the risk of introduction into, and spread within, the EU of the pathogen is low with a high uncertainty, as it is not possible to distinguish the effect of the legislation from that of the voluntary certification schemes currently used for the production of chrysanthemum plant propagation material. If the current EU regulations regarding the pest were to be removed and the voluntary certification schemes remained in place, there would be no great effect on the risk of introduction, spread and impact of S. chrysanthemi in the EU territory. © European Food Safety Authority, 2013

Following a request from European Commission, the PLH Panel examined the comments of the Portuguese plant health authorities on a previous EFSA opinion with regard to pine wood nematode (PWN) and Pinus pinea and a report on PWN surveys in Portugal. Regarding the comment, based on behavioural responses of PWN to CO2 and to ß-myrcene, that Monochamus galloprovincialis can feed on P. pinea without implying PWN infestation, the Panel noted the uncertainties on how chemical attraction influences the exit of PWN from the vector. The Panel agreed that P. pinea is not a preferred breeding host of M. galloprovincialis, but it noted the evidence from Italy of breeding of M. galloprovincialis in fallen woods of P. pinea, suggesting P. pinea to be an occasional host. The Panel agreed that, although pathogenicity of PWN has been recorded on P. pinea in inoculation experiments on small plants, this does not necessarily relate to pathogenicity on larger trees in the field. The additional information on Portuguese PWN surveys is not sufficient to conclude that P. pinea is resistant to PWN. The Panel also noted that asymptomatic infestations by PWN are well known in other areas, and pine species considered tolerant to PWN could still maintain it at low levels in restricted parts of a tree. The Panel concluded that there is high uncertainty concerning the classification of the risk of spread of PWN with plants and wood of P. pinea, owing to the scarcity of information on the interaction of M. galloprovincialis, PWN and P. pinea, as well as on the field resistance of P. pinea to PWN. Owing to high uncertainty related to the host potential of P. pinea, more studies on the transmission of PWN at feeding wounds and on its survival in trees and wood of P. pinea are needed.

The Panel on Plant Health assessed the risk to plant health of Arabis mosaic virus (ArMV), Strawberry latent ringspot virus (SLRSV), Raspberry ringspot virus (RpRSV) and Tomato black ring virus (TBRV) for the European Union (EU) territory, and evaluated the current EU legislation and possible risk reduction options. These viruses are largely restricted to Europe and their vector nematodes and at-risk hosts occur widely in Europe. Plants for planting were identified as the most significant entry pathway and the probability of entry is rated as unlikely to moderately likely for ArMV and as very unlikely to unlikely for RpRSV, SLRSV and TBRV. These ratings have moderate uncertainty. The probability of establishment is rated very likely with low uncertainty. The probability of local spread by natural means is likely, with low to medium uncertainty, whereas that of human-assisted long-distance spread is unlikely to moderately likely, with high uncertainty. Potential impact is rated minimal to minor in all hosts, with the exception of ArMV in grapevine, for which it is minor to moderate. These ratings have medium or high uncertainty. The current legislation addresses only two of the many host species of these viruses, but other weaknesses were also identified. If the current legislation were removed, no major consequences would be expected unless the industry simultaneously ceased its voluntary certification activity. Prohibition and the use of phytosanitary certificates, if covering the complete host ranges of the viruses and relying on appropriate tests, are the options with highest effectiveness against the risk of introduction whereas certification schemes and pest-free areas or production sites are those with the highest effectiveness against the spread and impact risks. All options have limitations in feasibility, with uncertainty ratings from moderate to high. The combination of partially effective options may be highly effective in some crops.

The Panel on Plant Health conducted a pest risk assessment for Parasaissetia nigra in the European Union (EU) and identified and evaluated the phytosanitary measures listed in Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Entry through the principal pathways is assessed as moderately likely for plants for planting and very unlikely for living parts of plants, such as fruit and cut flowers with foliage, the discrepancy being mainly due to the difference in probability of transfer to a suitable host. Establishment is rated as very likely outdoors in Mediterranean areas and indoors in the whole risk assessment area (where the pest has been present for a long time), and unlikely outdoors in non-Mediterranean areas. Spread within the EU is considered to be moderately likely because the pest can readily be moved with plant material but is limited by climatic conditions. The magnitude of the potential consequences is rated as minor. The Panel evaluated the effectiveness of current EU phytosanitary measures and concluded that the removal of P. nigra from Annex IIAII would not affect its probability of entry, because the importation from Third countries of some host plants regulated for P. nigra (Citrus, Fortunella, Poncirus species and their hybrids) is prohibited in Annex III. However, spread could be affected since there would no longer be a requirement to inspect for this pest before issuing a plant passport (Annex V). However, since the regulated Rutaceae species constitute only a very small proportion of the potential host plants of P. nigra, the current phytosanitary measures are mostly ineffective in preventing the further introduction and spread of P. nigra in the EU. The Panel identified surveillance at the production site and treatment of the consignment as the most effective and technically feasible risk reduction options, particularly when in combination. © European Food Safety Authority, 2013

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has been asked to address the comments submitted in April 2012 by the US phytosanitary authorities on the EFSA scientific opinion on the US request related to the export of Florida citrus fruit. The EFSA Panel on Plant Health acknowledges the responses provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and considers that the USDA misinterpreted the conclusions made by the Panel in its previous opinion (EFSA Panel on Plant Health (PLH), 2011). The Panel considers that the extrapolations of the data provided by Shiotani et al. (2009) and Gottwald et al. (2009) were not supported by sound evidence. The Panel considers that both the responses provided by Dr Shiotani and by Dr Gottwald and colleagues do not lead to any major change in the set of scientifically sound information related to citrus canker and Xanthomonas citri pv. citri. The Panel, after evaluating the response provided by the USDA regarding the previous EFSA scientific opinion on citrus canker, considers that the removal of mandatory mitigation measures in field and packinghouse facilities increases the risk of contamination of fruit during the growing season and thus the bacterial load and frequency of infected fruit in consignments. Permitting the trade of citrus fruit originating from infected orchards increases the probability of the presence of X. citri pv. citri on fruit in consignments from those sites. The Panel considers that citrus fruit is a pathway for introduction of X. citri pv. citri into the European Union and the related risk is being evaluated in a separate EFSA opinion under preparation on the plant health risk of citrus canker for the EU.

The Panel on Plant Health assessed the risk of introduction of listed viruses and virus-like agents through the import of pollen for pollination of eight plant genera. Because of the absence of an identified pollen trade for Fragaria, Rubus, Ribes, Vitis and Cydonia, the risk of introduction of viruses listed in Directive 2000/29/EC was assessed to be negligible, with low uncertainty. For Prunus, Malus and Pyrus, trade was identified and the risk evaluated in detail. For 12 viruses and one viroid the probability of entry was rated unlikely to moderately likely and the probability of establishment very unlikely to unlikely. In the case of the two remaining agents, Apple latent spherical virus (ALSV) and Apple fruit crinkle viroid (AFCVd), the probability of entry was rated as very unlikely with a moderately likely to likely (ALSV) or very unlikely to unlikely (AFCVd) probability of establishment. Therefore, for all agents, significant limitations to their introduction were identified. Almost all ratings are, however, associated with high uncertainty because of the absence of information on many important aspects. As a consequence, the risk of introduction of listed viruses and viroids by pollen for pollination of the genera Prunus, Malus and Pyrus is considered negligible to low, with high uncertainty. The current legislation provides a substantial level of risk reduction but risks could be further reduced by addressing specifically pollen in Annexes III and IV. The two risk reduction options identified with high or very high effectiveness and feasibility to further reduce the risk of introduction are the extension to all non-EU countries of the existing prohibition on Prunus, Malus and Pyrus pollen imports and a request for the individual testing of all imported pollen shipments. The uncertainty on the effectiveness and feasibility of these measures was assessed as low and low to medium, respectively.

The Panel on Plant Health conducted a pest risk assessment for Eutetranychus orientalis in the European Union (EU) and evaluated the effectiveness of phytosanitary measures in Council Directive 2000/29/EC. Entry through the plants for planting pathway is assessed as very likely, while entry through other pathways is estimated as moderately likely to unlikely owing to the different probability of transfer to a suitable host. Establishment is rated as very likely in Mediterranean areas and from moderately likely to unlikely in non-Mediterranean areas, because of unfavourable environmental conditions. Spread is rated as very likely because of the many ways the pest can spread, its polyphagy and the wide distribution of hosts. Impact is rated as minor, with an expected increase in the damage when populations of natural enemies are severely affected by control measures and/or when environmental conditions are stressful for the host. However, the lack of information resulted in an overall medium level of uncertainty. The Panel evaluated the effectiveness of current EU phytosanitary measures and concluded that the removal of E. orientalis from Annex IIAII would not affect its probability of entry, because the importation from Third countries of some host plants regulated for this pest(Citrus, Fortunella, Poncirus species and their hybrids) is prohibited in Annex III. However, spread could be affected since there would no longer be a requirement to inspect for this pest before issuing a plant passport (Annex V). However, since the regulated Rutaceae species constitute an extremely small proportion of the potential host plants of E. orientalis, the current phytosanitary measures are mostly ineffective in preventing further introduction and spread of E. orientalis in the EU. The Panel identified surveillance at the production site and treatment of the consignment as the most effective and technically feasible risk reduction options, particularly when applied together.

Plant parasitic nematodes associated with potato feed on roots and/or tubers. About 70 species, representing 24 genera, have been reported from potato. Since nematodes attack underground plant parts, there are no reliable foliar symptoms to show that nematodes may be the major cause of poor growth and reduced tuber yields. Potato roots damaged by nematodes may show lesions, abnormal proliferation of lateral roots, emerging white females and brown cysts. Nematode attacks may render plants vulnerable to other pathogens, so disease caused by microorganisms may have nematodes as an etiological component. Therefore, nematode damage may often have been attributed to other factors. In Scandinavia, potato cyst nematodes (Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida) are by far the most important nematodes on potato. In Norway, the cost of compensations schemes due to imposed statutory regulations of potato cyst nematodes may some years exceed the compensation for any other pests or diseases organism in agriculture. Other important nematodes include root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.), stubby root nematodes (Trichodorus spp. and Paratrichodorus spp.), and potato rot and stem nematodes (Ditylenchus spp.). Root knot nematode Meloidogyne hapla is considered less important. Meloidogyne chitwoodi and Meloidogyne fallax are not known to be present in Nordic countries. In the control, crop rotations using non-host crops, alternating susceptible and resistant potato cultivars, are an important control measure. However, the use of resistant potato cultivars requires knowledge of the species and pathotypes present in the field.

The pinewood nematode (PWN) is one of the worst tree-killing exotic pests in East-Asian countries. The first European record of establishment in Portugal in 1999 triggered extensive surveys and contingency plans for eradication in European countries, including immediate removal of large areas of conifer host trees. Using Norway as an example, we applied a simulation model to evaluate the chance of successful eradication of a hypothetical introduction by the current contingency plan in a northern area where wilting symptoms are not expected to occur. Despite a highly variable spread of nematode infestations in space and time, the probability of successful eradication in 20 years was consistently low (mean 0.035, SE 0.02). The low success did not change significantly by varying the biological parameters in sensitivity analyses (SA), probably due to the late detection of infestations by the survey (mean 14.3 years). SA revealed a strong influence of management parameters. However, a high probability of eradication required unrealistic measures: achieving an eradication probability of 0.99 in 20 years required 10,000 survey samples per year and a host tree removal radius of 8,000 m around each detection point.

Organizations relying on Information Technology for their business processes have to employ various Security Mechanisms (Authentication, Authorization, Hashing, Encryption etc) to achieve their organizational security objectives of data confidentiality, integrity and availability. These security mechanisms except from their intended role of increased security level for this organization may also affect other systems outside the organization in a positive or negative manner called externalities. Externalities emerge in several ways i. e. direct cost, direct benefit, indirect cost and indirect benefit. Organizations barely consider positive externalities although they can be beneficial and the negative externalities that could create vulnerabilities are simply ignored. In this paper, we will present an infrastructure to streamline information security externalities that appear dynamically for an organization.

The growth and development of the syncytium induced by the beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii Schmidt) in rape (Brassica napus var. oleifera) and its relationships to adjacent root tissues were studied by serial sectioning and electron microscopy. In a 5-day-old syncytium, xylem parenchyma cells formed the largest part of the syncytium volume, while pericycle cells constituted the smallest fraction. Xylem parenchyma cells outside the confluent part of the syncytium were the first cells to differentiate into syncytium-component cells at the leading edges of syncytia. Early stages of differentiation were characterized by an increase in ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Later stages involved formation of tubular structures and cell wall ingrowths. In lateral roots, into which main root syncytia extended, xylem differentiation was disturbed by strong hypertrophy of xylem parenchyma cells. Here, xylem tracheary elements similar to graniferous tracheary elements occurred. The parasitism of H. schachtii in rape induced dramatic changes in root morphogenesis, and the response of xylem parenchyma cells was of fundamental importance in this host–parasite system. Key words: Brassica napus, Heterodera schachtii, syncytium, ultrastructure.

The anatomy and ultrastructure of syncytia induced in white mustard (Sinapis alba L.) by the beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii Schmidt) were studied in the nematode-susceptible cultivar Trico and the nematode-resistant cultivar Maxi. Although syncytia in both cultivars could reach similar volumes, they differed considerably in their ultrastructure. In the susceptible cultivar, xylem parenchyma cells responded with extensive hypertrophy, an increase in plastids and tubular smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and formation of elaborate ingrowths of the cell walls abutting the xylem tracheary elements. In the resistant cultivar, xylem parenchyma cells, occasionally incorporated into the syncytium, necrotized. Normally, however, these cells resisted incorporation and stopped the syncytia from reaching the xylem tracheary elements. This resulted in the differentiation of cell wall ingrowths on the inner tangential walls of neighbouring stelar parenchyma cells. The improper coordination of syncytium differentiation with xylem morphogenesis, the malfunction in the symplast–apoplast interaction with an abnormal deposition of protoplasmic constituents into the apoplast, the small number of plastids, the lack of tubular smooth ER and degradation processes, further demonstrated the incompatible nature of the host–parasite interaction in the resistant cultivar Maxi. Key words: Sinapis alba, Heterodera schachtii, ultrastructure, resistance.

This paper investigates if IT security is as a part of value creation. The first part of the commentary focuses on the current theoretical conditions for IT security as a part of value creation. Different Return On Security Investment (ROSI) models are studied to investigate if they can calculate value creation with regard either to efficiency or to effectiveness. The second part of the paper investigates empirical evidence of a ROSI or any indication of a shareholder value perspective on IT security in three large, listed companies from different business segments. What they have in common is their first priority: value creation. The commentary begins by describing the “Productivity Paradox”. It is followed by the most well-known ROSI models. Then, it explains the models applicability in value creation. Next, the three companies in the study are investigated. In the following section conclusions are drawn. Finally, the results of the research are discussed.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health conducted a pest risk assessment and an evaluation of risk reduction options for Xylella fastidiosa. X. fastidiosa has been detected in olive in the EU with a distribution restricted to the region of Apulia in Italy and is under official control. X. fastidiosa has a very broad host range, including many common cultivated and wild plants. All xylem fluid-feeding insects in Europe are considered to be potential vectors. Philaenus spumarius (Hemiptera: Aphrophoridae), a polyphagous spittlebug widespread in the whole risk assessment area, has been identified as a vector in Apulia. The probability of entry of X. fastidiosa from countries where X. fastidiosa is reported is very high with plants for planting and moderate with infectious insect vectors carried with plant commodities or travelling as stowaways. Establishment and spread in the EU is very likely. The consequences are considered to be major because yield losses and other damage would be high and require costly control measures. The systematic use of insecticides for vector control may create environmental impacts. With regard to risk reduction options, strategies for the prevention of introduction and for the containment of outbreaks should focus on the two main pathways (plants for planting and infectious insect vectors) and combine the most effective options in an integrated approach. For plants for planting, these could be pest-free production areas, surveillance, certification, screened greenhouse production, vector control and testing for infection and, for some plant species, treatments (e.g. thermotherapy). To prevent entry of the infectious vectors, insecticide treatments and inspection of consignments and production sites are required. The Panel has also reviewed the effectiveness of risk reduction options for X. fastidiosa and its vectors listed in Directive 2000/29/EC and in the EU emergency measures. The Panel recommends the continuation and intensification of research on the host range, epidemiology and control of the Apulian outbreak.

The lack of planning, business re-engineering, and coordination in the whole process of computerisation, is the most pronounced problem facing organisations in developing countries. These problems often lead to a discontinuous link between technology and the business processes. As a result, the introduced technology poses some critical risks to the organisations due to the different perceptions of the management and technical staff in viewing the ICT security problem. This paper discusses a practical experience of bridging the gap between the general management and ICT technicians.