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The purpose of the present study was to assess whether the recognition of tennis players’ affective state associated with their nonverbal behavior would be influenced by (a) the importance of the situation, (b) the point outcome, and (c) the tennis expertise of the observer. Two hundred sixty-nine participants (Mage = 30.51 years; 116 female; 79 tennis club members) watched video excerpts showing the nonverbal behavior of amateur tennis players during competitive matches immediately after the end of a rally and were asked to estimate whether the player had just won or lost the point. Results indicate that the recognition rates were higher for situations closer to the end of a game, closer to the end of a set, and with a tighter score during a game. Moreover, recognition rates were higher for lost than for won points, while the tennis expertise of participants had no influence on the recognition rates.

Minimizing the temporal gap between behavior and reward enhances persistence, but the effect of other outcomes is unknown. Two concurrently run studies aimed to investigate whether persistence on a physical task would be influenced according to whether participants expected immediate versus delayed goal feedback. Furthermore, whether this effect occurs via intrinsic motivation (Studies 1 and 2) or delaying the desire–goal conflict (Study 2) was examined. Using a counterbalanced within-person design, 34 participants in each study (Study 1: 16 males, 18 females; Study 2: 15 males, 19 females) completed two wall-sit persistence tasks, one with immediate feedback expected (regarding the participant’s position on a leader board) and the other with feedback expected to be provided 1 week later. A two-way mixed analysis of variance found no significant differences in persistence between conditions in either study. Furthermore, no indirect effects were found via intrinsic motivation or delayed desire–goal conflict. Study findings did not support the hypothesis that the timing of expected feedback enhances persistence.

Sport injury-related growth (SIRG) describes the possibility for athletes to benefit psychologically from an injury. The present, preregistered online study examined an international sample of 335 athletes with impressive athletic biographies who sustained a severe sport-related injury. Expanding the extant literature, we empirically contrasted numerous psychological, situational, and demographic predictors of perceived SIRG—specifically, athletes’ optimism, coping style, self-efficacy, athletic identity, social support, need satisfaction, and injury centrality. Our data first provide empirical evidence for perceived SIRG, even when statistically controlling for a potential social-desirability bias in athletes’ responses. In addition, frequentist and Bayesian regression analyses showed that several psychological variables predicted perceived SIRG—particularly athletes’ informational social support, positive reframing, optimism, and injury centrality. Finally, post hoc mediation analyses showed how these psychological variables account for different levels of perceived SIRG as a function of demographic variables. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed, along with directions for future research.

Abstract. If-then planning (implementation intentions) describes a self-regulatory strategy that helps people to attain their goals across a variety of domains, such as achieving physical activity goals. Based on such beneficial effects, if-then plans are anecdotally discussed as a strategy to enhance sports-related performance as well. However, this discussion currently lacks an empirical basis. We therefore conducted a scoping review to identify experimental research on the effects of if-then planning on sports-related performance, potential moderators of these effects, the methodological approaches used, and the suitability of the available evidence for assessing the effectiveness of if-then planning in sports. Based on a search of four online databases, we identified a set of 11 studies that investigated if-then planning in experimental research with sports-related performance as an outcome measure. Six of these studies focused on if-then planning in endurance tasks, whereas the remaining studies investigated sports performance in domains that do not revolve primarily around endurance (e. g., tennis, golf, darts). The samples were often small and comprised university students; the conclusions drawn regarding the effectiveness of if-then planning for improving sports-related performance were rather heterogeneous. Still, most studies did shed light on tentative mechanisms (e. g., perceptions of effort and pain, arousal) and moderators (e. g., athletes’ beliefs about their performance limits, the feasibility of the behavior) of if-then planning in sports, guiding future research regarding the question of when and for whom if-then planning might be a beneficial strategy. Based on these findings, we identify the potentials and pitfalls of using if-then plans to enhance sports-related performance, discuss promising routes for future research, and derive practical implications for athletes and coaches.

The process model of self-control posits motivation, emotion, and attention as psychological mediators in the relationship between cognitive and physical self-control. However, this model has never been tested in a sport context. Participants (N=69) completed 2 isometric biceps endurance trials (physical self-control task; T1 and T2), separated by a 6-min cognitive manip-ulation of self-control. Motivation and emotion were assessed before the respective biceps task, and attention was assessed in terms of gaze behavior on task-relevant in comparison with task-irrelevant stimuli during the biceps task (T1 and T2). To test the hypothesis that motivation, emotion, and attention mediated the relationship between cognitive and physical self-control, aparallel multiple mediator model was calculated. The results indicate that motivation, emotion,and attention (relative change between T1 and T2) did not mediate the relationship between cognitive and physical self-control (b=-0.01, 95% bias corrected and accelerated [BCa]confidence interval [-0.06, 0.03]) and that the exertion of cognitive self-control did not necessarily lead to impaired performance. Future studies should investigate the role of task demands and other potential mediators of self-control (e.g., belief about a limited willpower). Keywords:self-regulation, process model, psychological mediators, sports, mediation model

Of the many people who make New Year’s resolutions, only very few achieve them persistently (Statistic Brain, 2017). This so-called intention-behavior gap extends well beyond the realm of New Year’s resolutions (Sheeran & Webb, 2016) and exemplifies the necessity to not only focus on the processes of goal setting (i.e., motivation) but also on the factors related to goal striving (i.e., volition) (Achtziger & Gollwitzer, 2018; Lewin, 1926). While a large body of research has addressed the motivational processes that enable effective goal setting, the volitional processes that govern the translation of these goals into actual behavior had long been neglected (Gollwitzer, 2012). However, the crucial relevance of volition in sports is intuitively clear: Motivating oneself to sign up for a marathon is considerably easier than actually training for and completing a marathon. In turn, research on volition in sports and exercise has received increased attention since the early 1990s (e.g., Beckmann & Strang, 1991) and this has greatly advanced the field. This Special Issue highlights some of these advancements and explicates promising avenues for further advancing volition research in sports and exercise.

A large body of research has shown that self-regulation is an important aspect underlying athletes’ well-being and performance. However, self-regulation skills are equally important for post-performance situations, particularly with regard to the recovery process. This review highlights relevant self-regulation skills and provides a brief overview of theories, research findings, and practical recommendations regarding self-regulation and recovery in sport and exercise. Recovery self-regulation is defined as the act of identifying one's current state, one's desired future state and undertaking actions to minimize the discrepancy between both states during the recovery phase (e.g., between training sessions or competitions). Several self-regulation skills relevant to this process are discussed in the current review. First, self-monitoring is a central self-regulatory skill for successfully regulating post-performance states. Second, there is an important role for the regulation of cognition and emotion as complete recovery is only accomplished when both physical and mental resources are replenished. Specifically, detachment and mental rest (i.e., ceasing cognitive effort) enable athletes to restore depleted resources. Finally, self-control is often required to initiate appropriate, and sometimes effortful, recovery activities. That is, athletes may have to exert self-control to undertake activities, particularly when they are tired, stressed, or in a negative mood. Developing recovery self-regulation skills will likely benefit athletes’ physical and mental recovery from training and competition, which can have positive effects on long-term health, well-being, and performance.

Previous research has repeatedly shown that anxiety can impair academic as well as sports-related performance. Most research in this field has been conducted under artificial laboratory conditions,...

In this case study, the authors’ aim was to apply the tenets of the strength model of self-control (Baumeister et al., 1998) with two Israeli competitive archers over the 2019–20 season. According to this model, the ability to control the self is based on a finite resource that can become temporarily depleted. Under ego depletion, subsequent self-control acts are executed less efficiently, potentially resulting in lower effort and attentional focus. Recurve archery is a closed, self-paced shooting sport, which requires exerting control over physical and mental elements. Archers’ ability to control their performance sequence is partly dependent on self-control. The two archers practiced (in consultation sessions, training and competitions, and independently) a range of well-established intervention techniques (e.g., self-talk, performance routines, mindfulness) designed to increase their self-control strength and focus on the present shot. Archers self-reported data on their trait and state of self-control and mental states during several performance situations in training and competition. The results indicated a complex self-control—performance relationship, potentially underlined by the athletes’ preperformance mental state, self-control strength, and subjective perceptions of temporarily available self-control resources. The archers’ and the authors’ reflections demonstrate the importance of incorporating self-control training in an idiosyncratic manner to achieve positive performance outcomes.

The strength model of self-control proposes that all acts of self-control are energized by one global limited resource that becomes temporarily depleted by a primary self-control task, leading to impaired self-control performance in secondary self-control tasks. However, failed replications have cast doubt on the existence of this so-called ego depletion effect. Here, we investigated between-task (i.e., variation in self-control tasks) and within-task variation (i.e., task duration) as possible explanations for the conflicting literature on ego depletion effects. In a high-powered experiment (N = 709 participants), we used two established self-control tasks (Stroop task, transcription task) to test how variations in the duration of primary and secondary self-control tasks (2, 4, 8, or 16 min per task) affect the occurrence of an ego depletion effect (i.e., impaired performance in the secondary task). In line with the ego depletion hypothesis, subjects perceived longer lasting secondary tasks as more self-control demanding. Contrary to the ego depletion hypothesis, however, performance did neither suffer from prior self-control exertion, nor as a function of task duration. If anything, performance tended to improve when the primary self-control task lasted longer. These effects did not differ between the two self-control tasks, suggesting that the observed null findings were independent of task type.

The strength model of self-control proposes that all acts of self-control are energized by one global limited resource that becomes temporarily depleted by a primary self-control task, leading to impaired self-control performance in secondary self-control tasks. However, failed replications have cast doubt on the existence of this so-called ego depletion effect. Here, we investigated between-task (i.e. variation in self-control tasks) and within-task variation (i.e. task duration) as possible explanations for the conflicting literature on ego depletion effects. In a high-powered experiment (N = 709 participants), we used two established self-control tasks (Stroop task, transcription task) to test how variations in the duration of primary and secondary self-control tasks (2, 4, 8, or 16 minutes per task) affect the occurrence of an ego depletion effect (i.e., impaired performance in the secondary task). In line with the ego depletion hypothesis, subjects perceived longer lasting secondary tasks as more self-control demanding. Contrary to the ego depletion hypothesis, however, performance did neither suffer from prior self-control exertion, nor as a function of task duration. If anything, performance tended to improve when the primary self-control task lasted longer. These effects did not differ between the two self-control tasks, suggesting that the observed null findings were independent of task type.

During professional shooting tournaments, which typically last multiple hours, athletes must stay focused at all times in order to perform at their highest levels. Sustaining attention over extended periods of time relies on self-control. Crucially, perceived state self-control strength appears to wane as a function of task duration, which ultimately can impair shooting performance. In the present study, we tested the assumption that the level of self-reported self-control strength decreases over the course of a 1-hour shooting task measured twice during a regular training day and separated by a 2-hour break. Additionally, we assumed that shooting performance would be linked with fluctuations in self-control. A total of 21 shooters (14 elite and 7 sub-elite) took part in this study and were asked to perform a series of 10 shots at a standardized target, five times in the morning and five times in the afternoon (i.e., 100 shots total). The participants also reported their perceived state self-control strength at the baseline (prior to the start of the morning session as well as the afternoon session) and after a series of 10 shots each in the morning and afternoon (i.e., 12 measurements in total). In line with our hypotheses, we observed that perceived state self-control diminished with the number of shots performed, and that perceived state self-control could explain shooting performance. Additionally, these observations could explain the difference in shooting performance between elite and sub-elite athletes. The results suggest that the perception of self-control strength is highly important for optimal shooting performance. Practical implications are discussed.

Imagine yourself walking to the gym in the rain after a long hard day at work. Picture yourself lifting heavy weights, even though you would prefer sitting on the sofa watching your favorite baseball team win a playoff match. Envision a marathon runner who keeps pushing herself during the final miles of a run, trying to override her thoughts of quitting the straining competition. These are just some sports-related examples of situations during which self-control processes enable us to keep striving for a desirable goal and suppress po-tentially tempting action alternatives. In general, “self-control refers to the capacity for alter-ing one’s own responses, especially to bring them into line with standards such as ideals, values, morals, and social expectations, and to support the pursuit of long-term goals” (Baumeister, Vohs, & Tice, 2007, p. 351) . However, self-control is not always applied effec-tively as, for instance, evidenced by the large number of gym dropouts every year (e.g., Eng-lert & Rummel, 2016). In this chapter, we will discuss empirical findings that highlight the importance of self-control for sports-related performance and we will introduce the theoretical accounts that try to explain why self-control sometimes appears to fail. Finally, we will discuss open research questions in order to improve our understanding of how self-control operates and why it is not applied at all times.

If-then planning (implementation intentions) describes a self-regulatory strategy that helps people to attain their goals across a variety of domains, such as achieving physical activity goals. Based on such beneficial effects, if-then plans are anecdotally discussed as a strategy to enhance sports-related performance as well. However, this discussion currently lacks an empirical basis. We therefore conducted a scoping review to identify experimental research on if-then planning effects on sports-related performance, potential moderators of these effects, the methodological approaches used, and the suitability of the available evidence for assessing the effectiveness of if-then planning in sports. Based on a search of four online databases, we identified a set of eleven studies that investigated if-then planning in experimental research with sports-related performance as outcome measure. Six of these studies focused on if-then planning in endurance tasks, the remaining studies investigated sports performance beyond endurance. The samples were often small and comprised university students, and conclusions regarding the effectiveness of if-then planning for improving sports-related performance were rather heterogeneous. Still, the majority of studies shed light on tentative mechanisms (e.g., perceptions of effort and pain, arousal) and moderators (e.g., athletes’ beliefs about their performance limits, feasibility of the behavior) of if-then planning in sports, guiding future research regarding the question of when and for whom if-then-planning might be a beneficial strategy. Based on these findings, we identify potentials and pitfalls when using if-then plans to enhance sports-related performance, discuss promising routes for future research, and derive practical implications for athletes and coaches.

Considering the convincing evidence that executive functions predict academic achievement significantly, strategies to foster executive functions in the early school years are highly requested. Besides traditional cognitive training, combined physical and cognitive interventions are intended to be a feasible way of enhancing both children’s daily physical activity and executive functions. The purpose of the present study was therefore to test the effectiveness of a six-week combined physical-cognitive intervention, and to compare it to both a sedentary cognitive intervention and a waitlist control group. Using a between-subjects experimental design, 189 children aged between four and six years (M = 5.34, SD = 0.59) were recruited from 14 kindergarten classes, which were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (a) combined physical and cognitive training, (b) sedentary cognitive training or (c) waitlist control group. Before and after the interventions, all three core executive functions of updating, inhibition and shifting were measured. Physical activity was objectively measured using accelerometers during one intervention session. Linear mixed models revealed that children from both the combined physical-cognitive and the sedentary cognitive intervention improved their updating performance compared to the children of the control group. Inhibition and shifting remained unaffected by both interventions. With respect to children’s daily physical activity, linear mixed models showed that only the combined physical-cognitive intervention could significantly increase the amount of step counts. The results underline the feasibility of combined physical-cognitive interventions to enhance children’s daily physical activity and their cognitive performance.

Objectives:\ud \ud Soccer referees are challenged by physiological, professional, and mental demands which require them to exercise self-control for optimal performance. We applied the strength model of self-control (e.g., Baumeister & Vohs, 2016; Baumeister et al., 1998) to examine the relationship between self-control strength and performance in real matches.\ud \ud Design and methods:\ud \ud Sixteen soccer referees (M age = 30.06 yrs, SD = 7.38) completed a trait self-control scale. Then, over 2–4 matches they completed measures of daily hassles prior to the match and state self-control prior to and after the match. Personal, situational and performance indices were also collected. Data were analyzed using several statistical procedures, including hierarchical linear modeling.\ud \ud Results:\ud \ud The referees exhibited higher levels of trait self-control compared with professional soccer players and the general population. Their state self-control scores were also high. A noticeable decrease (10% or more) in state self-control strength (i.e., ego depletion) was evident in almost half of the matches. Experience of daily hassles and travel time to the match were related to lower pre-match self-control. Ego depletion was associated with self-reported match difficulty and was negatively related to self-rated match performance.\ud \ud Conclusions:\ud \ud The findings are in line with previous studies and the strength model of self-control, highlighting the importance of self-control strength in soccer refereeing. Practitioners and Referee Unions should support referees in planning match day routines to maintain self-control strength.

In the present study, we tested the assumption that performance in a knowledge retrieval test would be lower in secondary school students with temporarily depleted self-control strength (n = 53) compared to secondary school students with temporarily available self-control strength (n = 56). After manipulating self-control strength, students were instructed to memorise the names and the functions of the human eye and to recall as many names and functions as possible following a one-min distraction task. The results supported our assumptions, as students with depleted self-control strength performed significantly worse in the knowledge retrieval task compared to students whose self-control strength had not been temporarily depleted. The results suggest that depleted self-control strength may negatively affect academic performance and hinder a successful academic career. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Subjective vitality is a positive feeling of aliveness and energy, and it is a crucial aspect of well-being. The Subjective Vitality Scales (SVS) have been developed to measure subjective vitality both at the individual difference level and the state level in English-speaking samples. We translated the SVS into German (the SVS-G) and examined their psychometric properties. In Study 1 (N=260), we found that two correlated factors (Factor 1: individual difference level; Factor 2: state level) with five items each constituted a useful structure for the SVS-G. Moreover, the scores on the individual difference scale were more stable than the scores on the state scale. We also found partial evidence for the measurement invariance over a period of three weeks. Conforming to our expectations, Study 2 (N=296) revealed that the SVS-G scores were related to positive and negative affect but could still be distinguished from the affect variables. In line with previous findings, Study 3 (N=203) showed that SVS-G scores are related to well-being variables (happiness and joviality) and the perceived capacity to actively perform effortful tasks (attentiveness and capacity for self-control). Across all the studies, the SVS-G showed satisfying inner consistency, and the two consideration levels (individual differences vs. state) could be differentiated. The initial evidence suggests that overall, the SVS-G have good psychometric properties.

Regelmasige korperliche Aktivitat, gesunde Ernahrung oder das rechtzeitige Lernen fur eine Abschlussklausur sind erstrebenswerte Verhaltensweisen, die jedoch von vielen Menschen nicht (dauerhaft) umgesetzt werden. Neben der Motivation spielt fur die persistente Umsetzung von Zielintentionen die Volition eine entscheidende Rolle. „Volition“ dient in diesem Zusammenhang als Sammelbegriff fur selbstregulatorische Funktionen, die die Initiierung und Aufrechterhaltung einer Zielintention ermoglichen, und zwar auch dann, wenn Handlungsbarrieren auftreten. Im vorliegenden Kapitel sollen drei der zentralen Volitionstheorien dargestellt und diskutiert werden: das Rubikon-Modell der Handlungsphasen, die Theorie der Handlungskontrolle und das Kraftspeichermodell der Selbstkontrolle. Daruber hinaus werden jeweils Handlungsempfehlungen abgeleitet, um eine dauerhafte Umsetzung von Zielintentionen zu unterstutzen.

Introduction In team sports, the ability to visually track the movements of teammates and opponents simultaneously is a critical aspect of success. In sports psychology, this ability can be examined with the help of the multiple object tracking paradigm. The current study investigated the relationship between task performance in a novel 360°-multiple object tracking task and visuospatial cognitive functions as well as the reliability of the task. Methods In a sample of 153 team sport athletes the relationships between performance in the 360°-multiple object tracking task and performance in a spatial attention task, a spatial working memory task, and a fluid intelligence task at a first time of measurement were investigated. Additionally, at a second time of measurement the test-retest reliability of the 360°-multiple object tracking task was measured over a six-week interval in a subsample of 65 athletes. Results The expected significant correlations between the performance in the 360°-multiple object tracking task and the tasks measuring spatial attention and working memory were observed. Test-retest reliability analysis indicated a good reliability of the procedure. Conclusions The results of this study demonstrate that the novel 360°-multiple object tracking task allows the reliable assessment of visuospatial cognitive performance of athletes in a dynamic 360°-environment.