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Aims To identify Botryosphaeriaceae fungal species that are associated with stem-end rot of mango, and to study their pathogenicity on mango fruit. Methods and results Based on the sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS), TEF1-α and β-tubulin, as well as on the phylogenetic analysis of combined sequences, four species of Lasiodiplodia (L. theobromae, L. pseudotheobromae, L. iranensis, L. mahajangana) and two species of Neofusicoccum (N. ribis, N. parvum) were identified. Pseudofusicoccum violaceum, Neoscytalidium dimidiatum and three species of Botryosphaeria (B. scharifii, B. dothidea, B. ramosa) were identified based on sequences of ITS and TEF1-α. Pathogenicity test of selected isolates were tested on Chok Anan, Waterlily and Falan mango cultivars. Generally, all species were observed to be pathogenic on the three tested mango cultivars on wounded fruits, except for N. ribis and N. parvum, which were pathogenic on both wounded and unwounded fruits. However, N. ribis was only pathogenic on cultivar Falan, whereas B. ramosa were pathogenic on cultivars Waterlily and Falan. Conclusions Eleven species of Botryosphaeriaceae were associated with mango stem-end rot in Malaysia. To the best of our knowledge, four species, namely L. mahajangana, B. ramosa, N. ribis and P. violaceum are the first recorded Botryosphaeriaceae fungi associated with stem end rot of mango. Significance and impact of the study The identification of Botryosphaeriaceae fungi is important to establish suitable control measures and quarantine requirements. Many species have a wide host range, which means that there is a possibility of cross infection from other infected plants.

A symptom of stem-end rot was observed on fruits of mango cv. Falan in a hypermarket in Penang Island, Malaysia. Colletotrichum asianum and C. siamense were isolated from the diseased fruits. Identification of fungi was based on morphology and on ITS, GADPH and ACT gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. A pathogenicity test was conducted on three cultivars of mango (Chok Anan, Falan and Waterlily), on wounded and unwounded fruits. Both Colletotrichum species caused rotting symptoms on wounded and unwounded fruits of all cultivars. Both species were re-isolated from the diseased fruits, thereby fulfilling Koch’s postulates. This is the first report of C. asianum and C. siamense associated with mango stem-end rot in Malaysia.

Diaporthe spp. isolated from stem-end rot lesions of several cultivars of mango were phylogenetically identified as Diaporthe arecae, Diaporthe eugeniae, Diaporthe pascoei, Diaporthe perseae, and Diaporthe ueckerae based on Internal Transcribed Spacer, Translation Elongation Factor-1α, and β-tubulin sequences. Pathogenicity test showed that species identified as D. pascoei and D. ueckerae isolates produced stem-end rot symptoms on tested mango cvs Chok Anan, Waterlily, and Falan. Diaporthe arecae was pathogenic both on Chok Anan and Waterlily, while D. perseae produced rotting symptoms only on Chok Anan. Diaporthe eugeniae was not pathogenic in all tested mango cultivars. Our study indicates that pathogenic Diaporthe spp. are possibly opportunistic pathogens.

The research describes the development of a simple, cheap and efficient open-ended coaxial sensor for the determination of moisture content of Chok Anan mango during fruit ripening from week 5 to week 17. The sensor was a modification of a standard subminiature panel (SMA-P). The finite element method was used to calculate the numerical values of the reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient of the sensor was measured using a Microwave Network Analyzer in the frequency range from 1 to 4 GHz. The actual moisture content was obtained using standard oven drying method. A calibration equation was obtained to predict moisture content from the measured reflection coefficient at 1 GHz with accuracy within 1.5%. The results indicate that the amount of m.c. in Chok Anan mango can be determined with excellent accuracy using a SMA-P coaxial sensor as an OEC sensor.

Pectin recovered from mango peel biomass can be used as a potential source for pectic oligosaccharide hydrolysate with excellent probiotic growth-enhancing performance and prebiotic potentials. Consequently, the objectives of the current study were to optimise the enzyme hydrolysis treatment of mango peel pectin (MPP) and to evaluate the pectic oligosaccharide effects of Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 and Bifidobacterium animalis TISTR 2195. Mango of “chok anan” variety was chosen due to its excessive volume of biomass in processing and high pectin content. The optimal treatment for mango peel pectic oligosaccharide (MPOS) valorisation was 24 h of fermentation with 0.3% (v/v) pectinase. This condition provided small oligosaccharides with the molecular weight of 643 Da that demonstrated the highest score of prebiotic activity for both of B. animalis TISTR 2195 (7.76) and L. reuteri DSM 17938 (6.87). The major sugar compositions of the oligosaccharide were fructose (24.41% (w/w)) and glucose (19.52% (w/w)). For the simulation of prebiotic fermentation, B. animalis TISTR 2195 showed higher proliferation in 4% (w/v) of MPOS supplemented (8.92 log CFU/mL) than that of L. reuteri (8.53 CFU/mL) at 72 h of the fermentation time. The main short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) derived from MPOS were acetic acid and propionic acid. The highest value of total SCFA was achieved from the 4% (w/v) MPOS supplementation for both of B. animalis (68.57 mM) and L. reuteri (69.15 mM). The result of this study therefore conclusively advises that MPOS is a novel pectic oligosaccharide resource providing the opportunity for the sustainable development approach through utilising by-products from the fruit industry.

Enzimsko posmeđivanje ozbiljno narušava kakvoću svježe rezanog voća i povrća. U novije vrijeme, potrošači i prerađivači voća i povrća zahtijevaju da se umjesto kemijskih spojeva koriste prirodni inhibitori posmeđivanja. Iz praha kore ploda manga (Mangifera indica cv. Chok Anan) tretirane tekućim dušikom izdvojeni su polifenoli, i to ekstrakcijom potpomognutom ultrazvukom i ekstrakcijom potpomognutom ultrazvukom i miješanjem. Najveći ukupni udjel fenola u ekstraktu praha kore manga dobiven je ekstrakcijom potpomognutom ultrazvukom i miješanjem tijekom 15 min. Pri skladištenju se pirea od krumpira tretiranog prahom kore manga nakon 6 sati smanjilo njegovo posmeđivanje, dok su se svjetlina (L*) i kut promjene boje povećali u usporedbi s uzorcima pirea od krumpira tretiranim askorbinskom ili limunskom kiselinom. Ekstrakt praha kore manga imao je veći inhibicijski učinak na polifenolnu oksidazu u krumpiru nego askorbinska i limunska kiselina. Njegova vrijednost IC50 bila je 0,3 mg/mL. Mangiferin, protokatehinska i galna kiselina iz ekstrakta kore manga imali su jak inhibicijski učinak na polifenolnu oksidazu u krumpiru, pa je zaključeno da se kora manga može upotrijebiti kao prirodni inhibitor enzimskog posmeđivanja., Enzymatic browning is a serious quality deterioration of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Recently, consumers and fruit and vegetable industrial processors have demanded the use of natural antibrowning agents to replace the use of chemicals. Mango (Mangifera indica cv. Chok Anan) peel was prepared in the form of mango peel liquid nitrogen powder. This included extraction by ultrasound or ultrasound combined with stirring. The total phenolic content of mango peel liquid nitrogen powder extract (further in the text: mango peel extract) was the highest after the extraction for 15 min using ultrasound followed by stirring for 15 min. The browning value of potato puree treated with mango peel extract was lower, while its L* value and the hue angle were larger than of samples treated with ascorbic or citric acids during storage for 6 h. Mango peel extract had a competitive inhibitory effect on potato polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which was larger than either ascorbic or citric acid. Its IC50 value was 0.3 mg/mL. Mangiferin, protocatechuic and gallic acid found in mango peel extract had high inhibitory effect on potato PPO, making mango peel a potential natural source of enzymatic browning inhibitor.

Mango peel, by-products of fruit processing, is a potential source of natural pectin. In this study, pectins were extracted form peels of commonly used for processing Thai mangoes, namely ‘Rad’, ‘Tar LubNak’, ‘Mahachanok’, ‘Sampee’, ‘Chok Anan’, ‘Keaw’, and ‘Nam Dok Mai’. Qualitative parameters viz., yield, equivalent weight, methoxyl content (Meo) and degree of esterification (DE) were compared. Methanolic extracts of the bound dietary fibers were used to determine total phenolic content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH●) free radical scavenging activity as well as Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity. The results illustrated that ‘Rad’ peel yield the highest amount of pectin, following by ‘Sampee’ and ‘Tar LubNak’ which are of the 500-1,000 mg mol-1 equivalent weight and lower Meo as well as DE. Pectins from peel these mangoes were, therefore of high quality low methoxyl pectin (LMP). The screening of bioactive functionality suggested that among the tested cultivars pectin of ‘Sampee’ mango gave the highest total phenolic content as well as antioxidant scavenging activities against DPPH and TEAC.

Anthracnose is the most significant mango disease in humid production areas such as Malaysia. It is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Postharvest fungicides such as benomyl have been widely used to suppress incidence of the disease. However, the incidence of resistance development and the side effects on environment and consumers has prompted the search for alternatives. This study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of UV-C irradiation in suppressing anthracnose of mango. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was identified based on the morphological characteristics that include colony morphology, conidial shape, size and septation. Effects of different UV-C irradiation doses on mycelial growth, sporulation and conidial germination were studied (0, 14.4, 28.8, 43.2, 57.6 and 72.0 kJ m-2) and indicated that 72.0 kJ m-2 showed the most significant inhibition. As for the fungal sporulation, all of the doses reduced the sporulation. Thus, UV-C irradiation could be used to reduce postharvest losses by inhibiting conidial germination and sporulation of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides on mango.

The maturity of mango is usually assessed by the determination of its moisture content (m.c.), soluble solid content (SSC) and pH. However, these techniques are either time consuming, tedious or destructive. In this research, we extend the application of the open-ended coaxial probe technique to determine m.c. and pH of Chok Anan mango from its dielectric properties from week 5 to week 17 after anthesis. The effects of frequency and m.c. on the values of the dielectric constant and loss factor were also investigated. The critical frequency separating the different polarizations was found to be inversely proportional to m.c. Also, in this research we proposed a new classification of fruit ripeness related to the number of weeks after anthesis. The actual dielectric properties, m.c., SSC and pH of Chok Anan mango were measured using standard methods. Relationships were established between the dielectric constant, loss factor, critical frequency, pH and m.c. The accuracy for the determination of m.c. and pH using the coaxial probe was within 1.7% and 3.0%, respectively.

Chok Anan mango, a climacteric fruit, is easily susceptible to quality deterioration during storage. However, no research has been conducted related to the application of tapioca and sago starch coatings on Chok Anan mangoes. Therefore, the aim of this research was to study the effect of tapioca-sago starch coating towards the quality of Chok Anan mango through storage. Hard matures Chok Anan mangoes (stage 2) were coated with different ratios of tapioca (T) and sago starch (S), i.e. 25%T: 75%S, 50%T: 50%S and 75%T: 25%S. Uncoated mangoes were served as the control. Coated and uncoated Chok Anan mangoes were packed in corrugated box to ripen at ambient temperature (27±2˚C) for 13 days. Starch analysis demonstrated that sago contained higher amylose (28.15%) than tapioca starch and thus a higher percentage of sago starch in the coating solution (25%T: 75%S) contributed to higher coating’s viscosity (75.90 cP). Analysis of coated mangoes exhibited significant better fruit quality as compared to the uncoated samples. Application of starch coating solutions with high percentage of sago starch (50%T: 50%S and 25%T: 75%S) were effectively delayed the increased of disease incidence, moisture loss and total soluble solids content as well as delayed the decreased of titratable acidity content during storage. Nevertheless, towards the final day of storage (day 13), no significant difference was shown in the peel color index, firmness and ascorbic acid content of Chok Anan mangoes between all coatings formulations applied.

The total phenolic contents (TPC), antioxidant activities and organic acid composition of Salacca zalacca, Mangifera indica L. Chok Anan and Baccaurea motleyana Hook. F. extracts at different maturity stages were evaluated by using modified Folin-Ciocalteu assay at 765 nm absorbance, 2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and HPLC RP18 column at 215 nm. TPC content ranged from 63.9 mg GAE/100g to 381.23 mg GAE/100g, whereas the antioxidant activity ranged from 3.10% - 84.45%. The M. indica L. Chok Anan contained malic acid and citric acid in the range of 43.897-73.396 mg/100g FW and 2.681-18.428 mg/100g FW at young to ripe stages, respectively. B. motleyana Hook. F. contained citric acid and tartaric acid in the range of 4.649-6.114 mg/100g FW and 3.645-4.365 mg/100g FW at young to ripe stages, respectively. S. zalacca contained malic acid and citric acid in the range of 4.270-17.926mg/100g FW and 0.845-3.284 mg/100g FW at young to ripe stages, respectively. The highest TPC and antioxidant activity were found in the young stage of S. zalacca fruit extract with lowest inhibitory concentration (IC50) valued at 0.57 mgml-1. There was a positive linear correlation between the TPC and antioxidant activities of the fruit extracts. Malic acid is the predominant organic acid in M. indica L. Chok Anan and S. zalacca, while citric acid is the predominant organic acid in B. motleyana Hook. F. This research suggests that the studied fruits at young stage are a better source of TPC and antioxidants. The tested fruits showed a decrease in the concentration of organic acids with ripening.

Unsynchronized flowering behavior and low fruit set are phenomenon that resulted in low production of mango fruit. The effects of a chemical inducing substance, potassium nitrate (KNO3), on enhancement of flowering on the mango clone ‘Chok Anan’ (MA 224) and, ultimately, the fruit production were studied. Initially, 12-month-old and 5-year-old mango trees were sprayed with 1%, 2%, and 5% KNO3. The 5-year-old mango trees showed earlier flowering and higher fruit set with 2% KNO3 followed by 5% and 1% KNO3. However, only 1% KNO3 initiated flowering on young mango trees. In conclusion, the flowering response to KNO3 depends on the age of tree.

The aim of this work was to investigate the quality and microstructure of different frozen mango cultivars. Since freezing can cause severe textural damage to fruit, the proper selection of a ripening stage and cultivar can reduce such damage. Two mango cultivars (Nam Dok Mai and Chok Anan) were allowed to ripen for four ripening stages. During ripening, titratable acidity, alcohol-insoluble residues, and firmness significantly decreased while total soluble solids, total pectin, and water-soluble pectin levels increased. Mangoes from the three final ripening stages were frozen until the temperature of the samples reached –25°C. After thawing, the partially ripe mango samples exhibited the highest firmness, lowest drip loss, lowest water-soluble pectin, and the highest sensory firmness scores. The microstructure found using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy showed that all frozen-thawed mangoes exhibited a swelling and folding of the cell wall due to freezing damage. The cell walls of f...

A fundamental understanding of mango flowering in the tropics is essential to efficiently utilize cropping management systems which could extend both the flowering and crop production seasons. However, the information and appreciation of the floral biology of this popular fruit species is still lacking. Therefore, the objective of this work was to observe the morphology of Chok Anan mango flowers using scanning electron microscope. The Chok Anan mango flower is monoecius where both the male and hermaphrodite flowers exist in the same panicle. The fruit develops from the hermaphrodite flower while the male flower contributes the pollen when pollination occurred. The Chok Anan mango flowers contained five sepals and five petals arranged in a whorl. There were not much differences in the structure of sepals and petals between the male and hermaphrodite flowers. The structure of the petals is not flat but billowy. Both sepals and petals consist of ground parenchyma tissue with laticifer and idioblast cells, starch granules and vascular bundle tissues. Trichomes are present in both sepals and petals. The male flower has the same structure as the hermaphrodite flower except that it does not have carpel. Further study is needed to understand the peculiarities of the floral morphology to allow us to predict mango production. Key words: Pollen, sepal, petal, hermaphrodite, floral biology.

‘Chok Anan’ mangoes, mainly produced in Northern Thailand, are appreciated for their light to bright yellow colour and sweet taste. Because fruit development of the on-season mangoes occurs during the dry season, farmers have to irrigate mango trees to ensure high yields and good quality. Therefore, it is important to understand the effects of water supply on the yield of mango fruit for better control and effective use of limited water resources. In this study, we aim to demonstrate the applicability of Random Forests (RF) for estimating mango fruit yields in response to water supply under different irrigation regimes. To cope with the variability of mango fruit yields observed in the field, a set of RF models was developed to estimate the minimum, mean and maximum values for each of the mango fruit yields, namely “total yield” and “number of marketable mango fruit”. In RF modelling, a combination of 10-day rainfall and irrigation data was used as model input in order to evaluate the effects of water sources on the mango fruit yields. The RF models accurately estimated the maximum and mean values of mango fruit yields, and showed moderate accuracy for the minimum mango fruit yields. The variable importance measure computed in the RF calculation suggested that the timing of water supply affects the mango fruit yields whereby rainfall and irrigation have different effects on the mango fruit yields. This case study on the estimation of mango fruit yields demonstrates the applicability of RF in the field of agricultural engineering, with a specific focus on water management. The model performance and the information retrieved from the RF models allow for precise modelling and the development of improved management practices in target agricultural systems.

Harvest maturity was specified for the selection of ‘Chok Anan’ mango fruit for long supply chains, which require maturity stages that ensure minimum risk of ripening during reefer transport, but which have acceptable potential for subsequent ripening. The impact of harvest maturity on performance after different periods of storage (14 °C, 50–60% RH, ethylene absorption) was explored. Twelve fruit lots picked within 24 days after 83–107 days after full bloom (DAFB) were distinguished according to physiological maturity at harvest, using principle component and cluster analysis. Titratable acids (TA), mesocarp yellowness (CIE b m * > 0 ) , and dry matter (DM) contributed most to specification of harvest maturity among nine independent variables, but did not correlate with peel color despite perceivable peel color changes during maturation. Using partial least squares regression, maturity at harvest was related to post-storage quality stages that were likewise defined for different storage times. Storage was accompanied by slow ripening, but respective rates varied depending on maturity at harvest. Storage time and harvest maturity overall determined post-storage quality at 67%, equally controlling TA and total soluble solids of the stored fruit. Firmness and all- trans -β-carotene were more governed by the storage time, and post-storage mesocarp color chiefly by harvest maturity. Fruit harvested after 83 DAFB developed most slowly at 14 °C, but adequate ripening after optimized storage remained to be proven. Overall best performance in marine transport systems with optimized storage conditions was expected for fruit lots, the slow development of which at 14 °C until eating ripeness within 18 ± 1 days indicated appropriate ripening potential. When picked at defined levels of TA, CIE b m * , and DM as recorded after 89 DAFB, these fruit were clearly distinguished from less suitable maturity stages.

The peels of rambutan, durian, santol, longan, longong, Kaeo mango, and Chok Anan mango were evaluated for their potential to be used as dietary fiber for food enrichment. All dietary fiber samples prepared from selected fruit peels showed high content of total dietary fiber (52–84 g/100 g dry matter) and also exhibited the significant difference in dietary fiber quality. All dietary fiber samples were safe for consumption, which was ensured by the results of an acute toxicity test. In summary, peels of tropical fruits used in this study had a great potential to be used as low-caloric functional ingredients for dietary fiber enrichment.

Uniform fruit mass and shapes of mangoes for export are required in order to ease handling and transportation, and to help satisfy consumer preferences. However, with its irregular shape, one which cannot be approximated by using standard geometrical figures, the mango is not as easy to model as round or oval-shaped fruits. In this study, more than 1000 mango 'Chok Anan' fruit were measured with respect to their length, maximum width and maximum thickness, to within an accuracy of 1.0 mm, and their weight was determined to within an accuracy of 0.1 g. Pictures were taken of 30 fruit, through the use of digital cameras, manually rectified and analyzed by use of ''Measure 2.1'' a computer code. An equation was proposed in order to calculate the mass of the mangoes based on three geometric dimensions, which then showed a high level of explanatory power of R^2=0.97. The root mean standard error of 12.22 was determined, and the mean relative deviation found was 0.05. Based on measurements taken from the digital photos, the equation was then used to determine the estimated mass based on three dimensions. Estimated and measured values were plotted against each other. A high correlation (R^2=0.96) was found between measured and calculated mass. It was shown that the mass can be estimated based on data obtained from two orthogonally taken photographs.

Fruit of three mango cultivars representing severe, moderate and slight chilling injury (CI) susceptibility, were stored at 5°C (chilling temperature) and 13°C (recommended storage temperature) for 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. CI symptoms, hydrogen peroxide content and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were determined both in the peel and the pulp next to the endocarp. 'Nam Dok Mai' mango developed CI in both the peel and the pulp. 'Chok Anan' developed CI only on the peel. No CI was found in 'Hongsawadee'. Mangoes stored at 5°C developed more CI symptoms on the peel than those stored at 13°C. However CI symptom in the pulp was higher at 13°C than at 5°C. After being transferred to room temperature, ripe mangoes developed more peel browning than unripe mangoes. However, lower CI symptom in the pulp was observed. In the peel, 'Nam Dok Mai' was found to have the highest level of total antioxidant capactiy, while 'Chok Anan' had the highest level of hydrogen peroxide. 'Hongsawadee' had the highest level of TAC in its pulp during cold storage but it was found to be the lowest once the fruit were transferred to room temperature. Despite the difference in chilling injury development among cultivars, tissues and ripening stages, no clear relationship between hydrogen peroxide content or TAC level in the three mango cultivars and chilling iniurv could be established.

Mango has a different degree of susceptibility to Anthracnose disease. In the previous study, it was found that latex contained some antifungal compounds which had an effect to control Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Eight commercial mango cutivars, namely 'Nam Dokmai #4', 'Rad', 'Kaew', 'Kaew Juk', 'Keaw Sawaey', 'Chok Anan', 'Keaw Moragot' and 'Mahajanaka', were studied for susceptibility to Anthracnose disease. The relationship between susceptibility to Anthracnose disease and antifungal compounds content in fruit latex were investigated. Crude extract of latex was separated and tested. It was found that antifungal compounds presented only in water insoluble fraction. Most of the antifungal compounds were found in 'Kaew' which was the least susceptible to Anthracnose disease whereas 'Nam Dokmai #4' had the least antifungal compounds and it showed the most susceptible to Anthracnose disease. The cultivar showing greater susceptibility to Anthracnose disease had a lower antifungal compounds fraction content in the fruit latex. The amount of antifungal compound in the fruit latex in each mango cultivar varying from low to high level was 'Nam Dokmai #4', 'Rad', 'Keaw Moragot', 'Mahajanaka', 'Kaew Juk', 'Keaw Sawaey', 'Chok Anan' and 'Kaew', respectively. The result showed that antifungal compounds played an important role in controlling Anthracnose disease.

‘Chok Anan’ mangoes are mainly produced in the northern part of Thailand for the domestic fresh market and small scale processing. It is appreciated for its light to bright yellow color and its sweet taste. Most of the fruit development of on-season mango fruits takes place during the dry season and farmers have to irrigate mango trees to ensure high yields and good quality. Meanwhile, climate changes and expanding land use in horticulture have increased the pressure on water resources. Therefore research aims on the development of crop specific and water-saving irrigation techniques without detrimentally affecting crop productivity. The aim of this study was to assess the response of mango trees to varying amounts of available water. Influence of irrigation, rainfall, fruit set, retention rate and alternate bearing were considered as the fruit yield varies considerably during the growing seasons. Yield response and fruit size distribution were measured and WUE was determined for partial rootzone drying (PRD), regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and irrigated control trees. One hundred ninety-six mango trees were organized in a randomized block design consisting of four repetitive blocks, subdivided into eight fields. Four irrigation treatments have been evaluated with respect to mango yield and fruit quality: (a) control (CO = 100% of ETc), (b) (RDI = 50% of ETc), (c) (PRD = 50% of ETc, applied to alternating sides of the root system) and (d) no irrigation (NI). Over four years, the average yield in the different irrigation treatments was 83.35 kg/tree (CO), 80.16 kg/tree (RDI), 80.85 kg/tree (PRD) and 66.1 kg/tree (NI). Water use efficiency (WUE) calculated as yield per volume of irrigation water was always significantly higher in the deficit irrigation treatments as compared to the control. It turned out that in normal years the yields of the two deficit irrigation treatments (RDI and PRD) do not differ significantly, while in a dry year yield under PRD is higher than under RDI and in a year with early rainfall, RDI yields more than PRD. In all years PRD irrigated mangoes had a bigger average fruit size and a more favorable fruit size distribution. It was concluded that deficit irrigation strategies can save considerable amounts of water without affecting the yield to a large extend, possibly increasing the average fruit weight, apparently without negative long term effects.

The purpose of this research was to determine the firmness of mango fruit at different stages of maturity. Immature, mature, and over mature fruit from two Thai mango cultivars (Nam Dokmai and Chok Anan) were subjected to two firmness measuring techniques: a slow compression technique using the Universal Testing Machine and a high-speed impact sensing technique using the low-mass impact tester. The firmness of a mango as determined by the compression test was expressed by the slope of the force-deformation graph, while firmness values derived from the impact test were defined by the ratio between maximum acceleration and the corresponding time (the firmness index). A very good correlation between the two indicators was obtained. Each firmness indicator of the two cultivars remained relatively unchanged from the immature through to the fully mature stage, although firmness rapidly decreased as the fruit ripened. The Chok Anan cultivar was firmer than the Nam Dokmai type throughout the development period. T...

Mango is a crop of major economic importance in Thailand, produced during the dry season when irrigation is necessary to ensure stable yields of high quality. As local water resources are increasingly scarce, more efficient water usage in agriculture is important. Deficit irrigation has frequently been shown to increase water use efficiency of many agricultural crops. In this study, regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and partial rootzone drying (PRD) were evaluated for their effect on yield and quality of ‘Chok Anan’ mango fruits over two seasons (2004 and 2005). A control group of trees was irrigated with 268.7 mm (2004) and 231.2 mm (2005), whereas RDI and PRD received only 137.5 and 131.2 mm in 2004 and 150.0 mm and 125.0 mm in 2005, respectively. One group of trees was not irrigated. On-tree development, harvest and post-harvest analyses were conducted. Results showed that yields were reduced in deficit irrigation treatments as compared to the fully irrigated control. However, development and post-harvest quality of fruits grown under deficit irrigation were not adversely influenced. Under PRD in particular, fruit size was increased and fruits had a higher fraction of edible parts as compared to all other treatments. In conclusion, in areas where water is a limiting factor for production PRD may be the key for a sustainable increase in mango production.

Measuring wild pollinator services in agricultural production is very important in the context of sustainable management. In this study, we estimated the contribution of native pollinators to mango fruit set production of two mango cultivars Mangifera indica (L). cv. ‘Sala’ and ‘Chok Anan’. Visitation rates of pollinators on mango flowers and number of pollen grains adhering to their bodies determined pollinator efficiency for reproductive success of the crop. Chok Anan failed to produce any fruit set in the absence of pollinators. In natural condition, we found that Sala produced 4.8% fruit set per hermaphrodite flower while Chok Anan produced 3.1% per flower. Hand pollination tremendously increased fruit set of naturally pollinated flower for Sala (>100%), but only 33% for Chok Anan. Pollinator contribution to mango fruit set was estimated at 53% of total fruit set production. Our results highlighted the importance of insect pollinations in mango production. Large size flies Eristalinus spp. and Chrysomya spp. were found to be effective pollen carriers and visited more mango flowers compared with other flower visitors.

The influence of cultivar and fruit ripeness on sensory properties and all-trans-β-carotene contents of dried mango slices was evaluated. Different ripeness stages, quantitatively defined by a ripening index (RPI), were generated from a single lot per cultivar by subjecting mature-green mangoes of the cultivars ‘Nam Dokmai’, ‘Kaew’, and ‘Chok Anan’ to different postharvest ripening regimes. Fruits were ripened for 2 and 3 days at 24±2 °C/45–60% relative humidity (RH) and 33±2 °C/50–70% RH, with application of calcium carbide (CaC2) or 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (CEPA, Ride®) beside the control, terminating postharvest ripening when fruit firmness allowed proper peeling and slicing. After ripening, fruits were washed, peeled, sliced and subsequently dried in a conventional tray dryer at 70 °C for 8–10 h, until the water activity of the dried fruits was below 0.65. Mangoes cv. ‘Kaew’, followed by ‘Chok Anan’, were more suitable for drying than cv. ‘Nam Dokmai’ because of superior all-trans-β-carotene contents of the products. Maximum β-carotene contents of dried mango slices from cvs. ‘Chok Anan’ and ‘Kaew’ corresponded to retinol equivalents of 333–383 and 483–905 per 100 g of edible portion (dry weight), meeting daily mean requirements of vitamin A for adults according to FAO/WHO. Similar to the fresh fruit, exponential rise of all-trans-β-carotene contents with increasing fruit ripeness was also observed for the dried products of cvs. ‘Nam Dokmai’ and ‘Chok Anan’. Consistently, accelerated ripening at 33 °C, instead of 24 °C, resulted in higher all-trans-β-carotene contents of dried fruits. Both good sensory acceptance and cultivar-specific maximum all-trans-β-carotene contents of 13–16 and 20–23 mg kg−1 usually characterised the products of ‘Nam Dokmai’ and ‘Chok Anan’ fruits with RPI levels between 3 and 4. Conversely, fruits cv. ‘Kaew’ of RPI levels above 6 generally yielded products inferior in sensory acceptance and β-carotene contents, while superior product quality was found at higher RPI levels than for the other two cultivars.

Irradiation is a commercial technology for reducing postharvest losses, reducing microbial infections and fruit fly infestation and extending shelf-life of fresh produce. The effects of gamma irradiation at 0, 0.4 and 0.6 kGy from Cobalt 60 on the texture, colour and disease incidence in mangoes were investigated. The mangoes cv. Nam Dokmai and Chok Anan were harvested at the 70% and 90% stages of maturity and assessed after ripening at 25°C. Ripened 'Chok Anan' mangoes harvested at 70% and 90% maturity were softer than untreated fruits. In contrast, ripened irradiated 'Nam Dokmai' mangoes appeared firmer compared to untreated fruits. Polygalacturonase activity in 'Nam Dokmai' mangoes of 90% maturity was not affected by gamma irradiation. Gamma irradiation had no effect on skin or flesh colour and soluble solids content of mangoes of both cultivars harvested at both maturity stages. It was concluded that gamma irradiation at doses up to 0.6 kGy had no adverse effects on ripening of the test mangoes harvested at both maturity stages.

The potential of NIR as non-destructive method for determining maturity of Mangifera indica L. 'Nam Dokmai' and 'Chok Anan' was evaluated, investigating fruit lots in two successive crop years in the case of 'Chok Anan'. NIR spectra of each fruit were scanned from 650-2500 nm over 6 days of postharvest ripening. Weight loss, firmness, total soluble solids (TSS) and total titratable acidity (TTA) were determined by conventional destructive analyses in the same region of the fruits where the spectrum was performed. The whole NIR spectra and the physical and chemical data were subjected to multivariate calibration techniques using principal component analysis. The quality of the calibration models was expressed by the coefficients of determination (R2) and the standard error of prediction (SEP). The NIR spectra were highly correlated with ripening time and weight loss for both cultivars. Considering 'Nam Dokmai', R 2 were 0.97 and 0.92 for ripening time and weight loss, respectively, with SEP of 0.4 d and 0.9 %. For 'Chok Anan' R2 were at least 0.96 and 0.90 for ripening time and weight loss, respectively. R for TSS/TTA, being 0.84 and at least 0.70 for 'Nam Dokmai' and 'Chok Anan', respectively, were higher than for TSS or TTA itself. NIR as an extremely rapid and non-destructive method, was shown to be applicable to follow the postharvest ripening process of the mango lots studied, predicting quality attributes, which reveal linear changes during postharvest ripening.

Thai eat the young leaves of mango as vegetables. Antioxidants in young leaves of mango cultivars 'Talapnak', 'Chok Anan' and 'Nam Dok Mai' were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an online ABTS assay (HPLC-ABTS) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometer (HPLC-ESI-MS). Young leaves of mango cv. 'Nam Dok Mai' had the highest antioxidant capacity. Major antioxidants in young mango leaves were man- giferin and benzophenones (maclurin and iriflophenone derivatives). Mangiferin presented in higher quantities than other compounds in each cultivar, with cv. 'Talapnak' containing the most (37.92±0.98 mg/g DW). The compound with the highest antioxidant capacity in all cultivars was mangiferin pentoside (from 1.19±0.25 mmol TE/g DW in cv. 'Chok Anan' to 2.13±0.04 mmol TE/g DW in cv. 'Talapnak'). The compound with the highest Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity was maclurin galloyl glucoside (1.75±0.62 mol TE/mol).

Regarding their relevance for the fungal resistance of mangoes in long supply chains, the alk(en)ylresorcinols (AR) were quantitated in peel and mesocarp throughout storage (27 days, 14 °C, ethylene absorption). The 12 'Chok Anan' and 11 'Nam Dokmai #4' lots picked between 83 and 115 days after full bloom (DAFB) had different harvest maturity indices. The development of dry matter and fruit growth indicated physiological maturity ∼100 DAFB. During storage, all fruits ripened slowly, mostly until over-ripeness and visible decay. The total AR contents always ranged at 73 ± 4.5 and 6.4 ± 0.7 mg hg(-1) of 'Chok Anan' and 'Nam Dokmai #4' peel dry weight, respectively, but only at 6.7 ± 0.7 and 0.9 ± 0.1 mg hg(-1) for the corresponding mesocarp (P ≤ 0.05). These narrow concentration ranges were contradictory to the decreasing fungal resistance. Accordingly, the alk(en)ylresorcinols have not been a deciding factor for the fungal resistance.

Accumulation of beta-carotene during postharvest ripening of nine Thai mango cultivars was assessed after verifying extraction and high-performance liquid chromatographic quantification of the beta-carotene stereoisomers for this sample matrix. No relevant trans-cis isomerization was induced by the analytical procedure. The vitamin A potential of mangoes was evaluated at different ripening stages unequivocally defined by a ripening index (RPIWB). Being rather stable throughout postharvest ripening, the cultivar-specific proportion of cis-beta-carotene isomers ranged from 14 to 40% of the total beta-carotene content. Subjected to the same postharvest ripening conditions, only the cultivars Kaew, Maha Chanok, Chok Anan, and Nam Dokmai #4 developed a bright yellow-orange mesocarp coloration at their fully ripe stage (RPIWB = 1.5-1.8, sugar-acid ratio approximately 50), resulting in total beta-carotene contents of 6544-11249 microg/100 g mesocarp dry weight (DW) and vitamin A values of 892-1573 retinol equivalents (RE)/100 g DW. Contrarily, poor-colored cultivars Mon Duen Gao, Rad, Kiew Sawoei, Okrong Kiew, and Okrong Thong reached total beta-carotene contents of 1019-2195 microg/100 g DW and vitamin A values of 136-298 RE/100 g DW at comparable sugar-acid ratios. Exponential development of mesocarp color (hue angle, H degrees ) and all-trans-beta-carotene levels, respectively, with RPIWB was described for each cultivar, allowing good prediction of mesocarp color and vitamin A value at consumption ripeness.

Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. is the major problem of harvested mango for domestic markets and for export. Control of anthracnose disease is currently based on the application of fungicides. However, it was reported that there are some chemical residues of chemical in mango and in the environment. Therefore, safe alternative methods for controlling anthracnose disease were studied. The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the antifungal properties of modified coconut oil (MCO) in vitro test and to investigate the combined effects of ethanolic shellac - modified coconut oil solution (ES-MCO), hot water (HW) and UV-C treatments on controlling anthracnose disease and maintaining postharvest quality of mango fruit cv. Chok-Anan (in vivo test). The antifungal activity of the MCO was determined by a paper disc method and tested the survival of MCO treated-fungal spores on PDA. The results revealed that 2% MCO significantly inhibited the mycelail growth of C. gloeosporioides on paper disc and completely killed fungal spore on PDA. In vivo test, harvested mangoes were cleaned with a solution of 100 ppm sodium hypochlorite and air dried. The fruit were treated with HW, UV-C followed by ES-MCO coating (HW + UV-C + ES-MCO), HW followed by UV-C (HW + UV-C), or ES-MCO alone. Untreated fruit served as the control. All fruit samples were then kept at 13°C for 15 days. HW + UV-C + ES-MCO treatments showed the most effective in reducing anthracnose disease, followed by HW + UV-C treatments, and ES-MCO treatment, while the control fruit showed the greatest symptoms of anthracnose disease. In addition, both the ES-MCO alone and the combined treatments of HW + UV-C + ES-MCO significantly delayed ripening of fruit by retarding firmness, weight loss, total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), ethylene production and respiration rate, while the peel and pulp color of mango fruit were maintained throughout the storage period. This founding shows that HW + UV-C + ES-MCO treatments may act as the safe alternative methods to suppress anthracnose disease and delayed the senescence of mango fruit during cold storage.

Infection of mango fruit cv Nam Dok Mai by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides was studied using artificial inoculation. Under optimum conditions (95–100% RH, 25°C), germination and appressorium formation started at 12 h and 14 h, respectively, after deposition of conidia on the peel. After 48 h, 60% of fungal propagules present were appressoria. The fungus could infect mangoes through both pedicel and peel wounds, causing stem end rot and anthracnose in ripe fruit. Inoculation of wounded peel resulted in symptom development in unripe fruit whereas un wounded peel showed no symptoms. Resistance of fruits to disease depended on cultivar. Testing of fruit resistance to the fungus could be conducted by inoculation of fruit at 24 h after harvesting. When inoculated at both pre- and post-harvest stages, mango cvv Nam Dok Mai, Nang Klang Wan and Chok Anan were found to be susceptible to anthracnose whereas Rad and Kaew were relatively resistant.