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The prevalence of the latent course of genital inflammatory disease caused by chlamydia and its untimely diagnosis lead to an increase in the frequency of etiologically unidentified inflammatory processes and the application of unjustified treatment tactics. The aim of the research was to identify the causes of insufficient effectiveness of traditional treatment methods for genital inflammatory disease caused by chlamydial infection in women and men. Methods. Gynecological, paraclinical, and microbiological examinations were conducted on 170 women aged 19 to 35 years with chronic genital inflammatory disease (with an inflammation duration ranging from 2 to 12 years), which was complicated by infertility in 48 (28.2%) patients. Parallel examinations were conducted on 165 men aged 20 to 42 years with chronic urethritis and/or prostatitis of chlamydial etiology (with a disease duration ranging from 3 to 11 years). In the group of women (24 examined) with chronic genital inflammatory disease of chlamydial etiology, hospitalized for surgical treatment of tubal infertility, microbiological and morphological studies of surgical material fragments were conducted. Additionally, the concentration of doxycycline hydrochloride in the tissues of the fallopian tubes, blood, and urine was determined after oral administration of the drug on the 3rd, 6th, and 9th days. Similarly, in men with chronic urethritis of chlamydial etiology, the concentration of doxycycline hydrochloride in epithelial cells of the urethral mucosa, blood, and urine was determined. Results. The study established that the insufficient effectiveness of treatment for chronic genital inflammatory disease caused by chlamydia in both women and men is due to the absence of the necessary minimum inhibitory concentrations of antibacterial drugs (tetracycline group) when administered orally to suppress chlamydia at the site of infection. Additionally, the degree of anatomic and functional changes in the fallopian tubes (their sclerotic destruction due to chlamydial infection) in women and the urethral epithelium in men contribute to the treatment ineffectiveness. Conclusions. One of the primary factors contributing to the insufficient effectiveness of conservative treatment methods for genital inflammatory disease of chlamydial etiology is the untimely administration of treatment. At this stage, anatomical and functional changes in the pelvic organs become irreversible. Morphological changes in the tissues of the fallopian tubes due to chlamydial infection are characterized by the development of sclerotic destruction of the organ against the backdrop of disrupted intra-organ blood circulation. This explains the insufficient effectiveness of traditional anti-inflammatory treatment regimens for chronic salpingitis of this etiology with tetracycline antibiotics when administered orally in the later stages of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Taking into account a number of features in the diagnosis of year-round allergic rhinitis caused by chlamydial infection, it is important to increase the efficiency of its detection. Purpose. Creation of a methodology for predicting the presence of chlamydial infection in perennial allergic rhinitis, suitable for subsequent implementation in the form of a database of an expert decision support system. Methods. Based on the literature analysis of the research results, the results of managing patients with confirmed year-round allergic rhinitis, who, according to the results of basic treatment, have an unstable remission, the symptoms of this disease were established and a method for predicting its presence was formulated. All symptomatic data were divided into four groups of signs with a certain number of indicators in each. A total of 23 indicators have been proposed, some of which are mandatory for confirming infection, and some are alternative. The forecasting technique is based on the analysis of the ratio of mandatory and alternative features and was presented in the form of clear rules suitable for implementation in the MATLAB computing environment. The use of data related to patients was carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical Association, which regulates the conduct of scientific research. Research results and discussion. Based on the complex of studies performed, a method for predicting the presence of this pathology was proposed. A feature of the technique is a gradual increase in the reliability of the forecast, which eliminates the redundancy of surveys. Taking into account the possibilities of modern information technologies, the problem of creating a knowledge base for expert systems for the diagnosis of year-round allergic rhinitis caused by chlamydial infection was solved. The practical significance of the results of the work is to increase the reliability of diagnosing year-round allergic rhinitis caused by chlamydial infection. Conclusion. It was found that the identified 23 diagnostic indicators provide a fairly reliable prediction of the presence of chlamydial infection and, as a result, improve the quality of diagnosis of year-round allergic rhinitis.

Simple Summary: The hygiene hypothesis suggests that some infections may inhibit the development of allergic diseases, but the mechanism remains unclear. This research demonstrated the important role of cytokine-producing B cells in the infection-mediated modulation of allergic responses. Using chlamydia as a model pathogen, we showed that the adoptive transfer of B cells isolated from chlamydia-infected mice, unlike those from naïve mice, could effectively inhibit allergic airway eosinophilia and mucus overproduction, as well as Th2 cytokine responses. Intracellular cytokine analysis showed that B cells from chlamydia-infected mice produced higher levels of IFNγ than those from naïve mice. The inhibitory effect of the adoptively transferred B cells on allergic reactions was virtually abolished by the simultaneous blockade of IFNγ using a monoclonal antibody, which suggested that B cells modulated by chlamydial lung infection could have an inhibitory effect on airway allergic responses via the production of IFNγ. The results provide new insights into the targets related to the prevention and treatment of allergic diseases. The hygiene hypothesis suggests that some infections may inhibit the development of allergic diseases, but the mechanism remains unclear. Our previous study has shown that Chlamydia muridarum (Cm) lung infection can inhibit local eosinophilic inflammation induced by ovalbumin (OVA) through the modulation of dendritic cell (DC) and T cell responses in mice. In this study, we explored the role of B cells in the chlamydial-infection-mediated modulation of allergic responses. The results showed that adoptive transfer of B cells isolated from Cm-infected mice (Cm-B cells), unlike those from naïve mice (naïve B cells), could effectively inhibit allergic airway eosinophilia and mucus overproduction, as well as Th2 cytokine responses. In addition, total IgE/IgG1 and OVA-specific IgE/IgG1 antibodies in the serum were also decreased by the adoptive transfer of Cm-B cells. Intracellular cytokine analysis showed that B cells from Cm-infected mice produced higher levels of IFNγ than those from naïve mice. More interestingly, the inhibiting effect of adoptively transferred Cm-B cells on allergic reactions was virtually abolished by the simultaneous blockade of IFNγ using a monoclonal antibody. The results suggest that B cells modulated by chlamydial lung infection could play a regulatory role in OVA-induced acute allergic responses in the lung via the production of IFNγ. The results provide new insights into the targets related to the prevention and treatment of allergic diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interleukin-21 and its receptors (IL-21/IL-21R) aggravate chlamydial lung infection, while macrophages (Mφ) are one of the main cells infected by chlamydia and the main source of inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, it is particularly important to study whether IL-21/IL-21R aggravates chlamydia respiratory infection by regulating Mφ. Combined with bioinformatics analysis, we established an IL-21R-deficient (IL-21R−/−) mouse model of Chlamydia muridarum (C. muridarum) respiratory tract infection in vivo, studied C. muridarum-stimulated RAW264.7 by the addition of rmIL-21 in vitro, and conducted adoptive transfer experiments to clarify the association between IL-21/IL-21R and Mφ. IL-21R−/− mice showed lower infiltration of pulmonary total Mφ, alveolar macrophages, and interstitial macrophages compared with WT mice following infection. Transcriptomic analysis suggested that M1-related genes are downregulated in IL-21R−/− mice and that IL-21R deficiency affects the Mφ-mediated inflammatory response during C. muridarum infection. In vivo experiments verified that in IL-21R−/− mice, pulmonary M1-type CD80+, CD86+, MHC II+, TNFα+, and iNOS+ Mφ decreased, while there were no differences in M2-type CD206+, TGF-β+, IL-10+ and ARG1+ Mφ. In vitro, administration of rmIL-21 to C. muridarum-stimulated RAW264.7 cells promoted the levels of iNOS-NO and the expression of IL-12p40 and TNFα, but had no effect on TGFβ or IL-10. Further, adoptive transfer of M1-like bone marrow-derived macrophages derived from IL-21R−/− mice, unlike those from WT mice, effectively protected the recipients against C. muridarum infection and induced relieved pulmonary pathology. These findings help in understanding the mechanism by which IL-21/IL-21R exacerbates chlamydia respiratory infection by promoting the proinflammatory effect of Mφ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia trachomatis usually causes mucosal infections, bringing considerable morbidity and socioeconomic burden worldwide. We previously revealed that IL-27/IL-27R mediates protection against chlamydial invasion by promoting a protective Th1 response and suppressing neutrophilic inflammation. Here, we used the mouse model of Chlamydia muridarum (C. muridarum) respiratory infections to further investigate the impact of IL-27 signaling in the DCs-regulated immune response, since an elevated IL-27/IL-27R expression in DCs was identified following chlamydial infection. An adoptive transfer of Chlamydia muridarum-stimulated DCs to wild-type mice approach was subsequently used, and the donor-DCs-promoted resistance with a higher Th1 response against chlamydial infection was attenuated when DCs lacking IL-27R were used as donor cells. Flow cytometry analysis revealed the suppression of IL-27 signaling on DCs phenotypic maturation. A further functional maturation analysis of DCs revealed that IL-27 signaling restricted the protein and mRNA expression of IL-10 from DCs following infection. Thus, these findings suggest that IL-27 signaling could support the Th1 response via inhibiting IL-10 production in DCs, thus mediating the protective host defense against chlamydial respiratory infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The main transmission route of Chlamydia abortus is by ingesting the microorganism that has been eliminated in vaginal secretions, placental membranes or abortions that contaminate the environment and, possibly, through milk and colostrum. Elimination through vaginal secretions is well documented. However, there are no reports about isolation and identification of C. abortus in the colostrum or milk of infected sheep, so it is important to determine whether or not C. abortus may be present in these secretions, which are the only food of lambs. Objective: To detect C. abortus in colostrum, milk, and vaginal secretions of sheep with a history of reproductive disorders. Methods: Colostrum, milk, and vaginal exudates were collected from 66 sheep. The samples were inoculated in mouse fibroblast cell cultures and the presence of C. abortus determined by direct immunofluorescence. Results: 19 out of 66 colostrum samples (28.7%), 14 out of 66 milk samples (21.2%) and 17 out of 66 vaginal swabs (25.7%) were positive for C. abortus. The 50 samples positive for isolation and detected by immunofluorescence, together with 42 negative samples were subjected to qPCR to amplify a fragment of the ompA gene from C. abortus. Thirty-eight of the 92 samples processed by this technique were positive for C. abortus. Conclusion: The results demonstrated the presence of C. abortus in a high proportion in colostrum, milk and vaginal secretions of infected sheep. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first field study confirming the presence of C. abortus in colostrum, which shows that excretion of Chlamydia by lactogenesis could occur in the first hours after birth.

FcγRI is an important cell surface receptor reported to be involved in multiple immune responses, although it has not yet been extensively studied in intracellular bacterial infections. Here, using a mouse model of C. muridarum respiratory infection, we were able to determine how FcγRI regulates the host resistance against chlamydial invasion. According to our findings, the chlamydial loads and pulmonary pathology were both reduced in FcγRI deficient (Fcgr1−/−) animals. Being infected, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, DCs, CD4+/CD8+ T cells, and effector Th1 subsets displayed increased FcγRI expression patterns. Altered infiltration of these cells in the lungs of Fcgr1−/− mice further demonstrated the regulation of FcγRI in the immune system and identified Th1 cells and macrophages as its target cell populations. As expected, we observed that the Th1 response was augmented in Fcgr1−/− mice, while the pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage polarization was constrained. These findings might indicate FcγRI as a potential regulator for host immunity and inflammatory response during chlamydial infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular bacterium where most species are pathogenic and infectious, causing various infectious diseases and complications in humans and animals. Antibiotics are often recommended for the clinical treatment of chlamydial infections. However, extensive research has shown that antibiotics may not be sufficient to eliminate or inhibit infection entirely and have some potential risks, including antibiotic resistance. The impact of chlamydial infection and antibiotic misuse should not be underestimated in public health. This study explores the possibility of new therapeutic techniques, including a review of recent studies on preventing and suppressing chlamydial infection by non-antibiotic compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the association of Chlamydial infection with infertility in patients reporting to tertiary care set up for evaluation. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, from Jun 2015 to Jun 2016. Methodology: A total of 100 women with primary or secondary infertility were included. Endo cervical swabs were taken. PAP smear was performed. One drop of anti-chlamydial monoclonal antibody was added to each slide, incubated at 37oC for 10 minutes, and examined for Chlamydia trachomatis under the fluorescent microscope. Results: The mean age was 29.87±3.48 years. 89.0% of the patients had primary infertility, and 11.0% had secondary infertility. The mean age of primary infertile patients was 29.98±3.51 years, while the same was 29.00±3.28 years among patients with secondary infertility. Chlamydial infection was detected positive by direct immunofluorescence (Elementary Bodies) in 6 patients with mean age of 27.17±1.72 years and positive in 13 patients by polymerase chain reaction with mean age of 28.38±1.85 years, having a significant p-value (<0.05). Conclusion: There was an association between Chlamydia trachomatis infection and female infertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Chlamydia trachomatis, commonly referred to as chlamydia (a bacterium), is a common sexually transmitted infection, and if attended to early, it can be treatable. However, if left untreated it can lead to serious consequences. C. trachomatis infects both females and males although its occurrence in females is more common, and it can spread to the eyes causing disease and in some case blindness. With ongoing attempts in the most impoverished regions of the country, trachoma will be eradicated as a blinding disease by the year 2022. A prophylactic vaccine candidate with established safety and efficacy is a cogent tool to achieve this goal. This manuscript covers the vaccine development programs for chlamydial infection. Currently, the Surgery Antibiotics Facial Environmental (SAFE) program is being implemented in endemic countries in order to reduce transmission and control of the disease. Vaccines have been shown over the years to protect against infectious diseases. Charge variant-based adjuvant can also be used for the successful delivery of chlamydial specific antigen for efficient vaccine delivery through nano delivery platform. Thus, a vaccine against C. trachomatis would be of great public health benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents modern data on epidemiological trends, pathogenesis, and mechanisms of persistence and acquisition of antibiotic resistance of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs): chlamydial infection, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis. Data on the frequency of chlamydial infection, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis detection in the DILA medical laboratory in the period from 2018–2020 are also presented. Analysis of epidemiological and microbiological studies indicates a significant increase in the STIs incidence in countries with high economic development and the need for constant revision of diagnostic and treatment approaches, based on new data on the pathogens physiology, mechanisms and levels of antibiotic resistance, possibilities of laboratory diagnostics. Analysis of the DILA data on the chlamydial infection, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis detection is coinciding with the world trends in the increase of their prevalence. At the same time, the analysis of the DILA data demonstrated an interesting clinical phenomenon as a presence of 2 STIs peaks in women: the first at 21–25 years and the second at 51–55 years old. Clinical manifestations of STIs are increasingly losing their typical features today. This indicates the need for a laboratory search for all common STIs in the region. Knowledge of the etiological factor of the inflammatory process allows choosing the correct antibiotic therapy and preventing the further development of antibiotic resistance. This article presents data on the various methods of STIs laboratory tests. Regular visits of women for cervical cancer screening are a good opportunity to screen for STIs. The ability to detect STIs in biomaterial in liquid cytology makes this option more accessible. Thus, since vaccines against common bacterial and protozoa STIs pathogens have not yet been developed, the promotion of hygiene of sexual behavior and timely detection of infected persons during examination or screening with subsequent etiopathogenetic treatment are the basis of the STIs control systems and their consequences prevention.

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) are one of the most effective ways in fighting infertility, but their effectiveness is influenced by various factors. Our study focuses on examining importance of risk factors underlying ART failure related to altered microbiome pattern in the female reproductive system. The case-control study was based on conducting a laboratory examination of 129 infertile couples applied to the Department of Assisted Reproductive Technologies due to failure of in vitro fertilization (IVF), whereas control group consisted of females with successful progressive pregnancy after ART. Chlamydia, herpes virus and cytomegalovirus were assessed by using PCR and ELISA, whereas culture method was used to detect Trichomonas vaginalis in vaginal swabs and ejaculate applying Trichomonas Modified CPLM Medium (HiMedia, India) followed by microscopy. In addition, the qualitative and quantitative composition of the vaginal biocenosis was studied with multiplex RT-PCR by using Femoflor-16 kit (DNA-technologies, Russia). Serological tests were based on measuring IgG and IgA antibodies against Chlamydia trachomatis in ELISA (diagnostic kits purchased from Vektor Best, Russia; NovaTec, Germany; ImmunoComb, Israel) as well as antibodies against immediate early HSV-1/2 proteins (BioService, Russia) and immediate early HHV-5 proteins (Vector Best, Russia). C. trachomatis and herpesvirus DNA was measured by using PCR diagnostic kits Amplisens (Interlabservice, Russia). It was found that sexually transmitted infection agents were highly prevalent in infertile couples applying to the hospital for IVF. Significant factors for non-pregnancy were vaginal dysmicrobiocenosis (OR = 7.5 (95% CI 1.04—54.1), p = 0.02) and detected T. vaginalis (OR = 2.6 (95% CI 1.12—6.4), p = 0.01). Dysbiosis of the reproductive system, including those occurring due to trichomonas infection is associated with lowered ART effectiveness. It is evident to timely detect urogenital infections and dysbiosis while preparing infertile couples for IVF cycles.

Female reproductive organs and their function can be affected by infection with several types of bacteria. The combat between immunity and bacterial infection leads to the release of various cytokines such as IFNg and TNFa, which may be connected to infertility by several theories. The current study results showed significant differences in levels of INFg and TNFa between females with chlamydial infection and healthy control. Significant differences were also found in levels of TNFa between groups of females, who were infected with four types of bacteria and healthy control. Mentoring the cytokines levels in infected females with bacterial or chlamydial infections may assist in determining the cause of infertility and find new strategies for diagnosis and treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-term conjunctival infections are challenging for the outpatient ophthalmologist. This is due to significant changes in microflora towards resistant gram-negative bacteria. Long-term conjunctival infections are challenging for the outpatient ophthalmologist. This is due to a significant change in microflora towards resistant gram-negative bacteria. The above studies are based on microbial associations, which are the causes of inflammatory processes, conjunctiva and cornea.Purpose: to increase the effectiveness of the diagnosis and treatment of chronic specific inflammatory diseases of the organs of vision.Patients and methods. The study was conducted in patients with chlamydial infection (n = 589) and included chronic conjunctival infections lasting more than 4 weeks, follow-up of patients with partners, family members for 3 or more years. Results. The study was carried out in patients with chlamydial infection (n = 589) and with chronic infectious diseases that lasted more than 4 weeks, following patients and family members for 3 or more years. During this period, we performed more than 3 studies for each patient — for diagnostic laboratory studies and 2 consecutive controls 1 and 2 months after treatment, mixed infection was detected in 256 people (10 %), the proportion of women was 20–30 years is 67 %, men — 51 %. In 27 % of cases, communities of Ch. trachomatis and Ureaplasma parvum as leading causative agents of the eye infections.Conclusions. Chlamydia is most often found together with Ureaplasma parvum (27 % of cases among mixed infections). Treatment of various forms of chlаmidia infection is carried out with the help of “Floxal” (0.3 % ofloxacin — drops and ointment).

Abstract Chlamydia are Gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens responsible for a broad spectrum of human and animal diseases. In humans, Chlamydia trachomatis is the most prevalent bacterial sexually transmitted infection worldwide and is the causative agent of trachoma (infectious blindness) in disadvantaged populations. Over the course of its developmental cycle, Chlamydia extensively remodels its intracellular niche and parasitises the host cell for nutrients, with substantial resulting changes to the host cell transcriptome and proteome. However, little information is available on the impact of chlamydial infection on the host cell epigenome and global gene regulation. Regions of open eukaryotic chromatin correspond to nucleosome-depleted regions, which in turn are associated with regulatory functions and transcription factor binding. We applied formaldehyde-assisted isolation of regulatory elements enrichment followed by sequencing (FAIRE-Seq) to generate temporal chromatin maps of C. trachomatis-infected human epithelial cells in vitro over the chlamydial developmental cycle. We detected both conserved and distinct temporal changes to genome-wide chromatin accessibility associated with C. trachomatis infection. The observed differentially accessible chromatin regions include temporally-enriched sets of transcription factors, which may help shape the host cell response to infection. These regions and motifs were linked to genomic features and genes associated with immune responses, re-direction of host cell nutrients, intracellular signalling, cell–cell adhesion, extracellular matrix, metabolism and apoptosis. This work provides another perspective to the complex response to chlamydial infection, and will inform further studies of transcriptional regulation and the epigenome in Chlamydia-infected human cells and tissues.

During the chronic urogenital chlamydial infection, violations of all links of pathogenesis, as well as changes in the composition and properties of biologically active substances, i.d. cytokines, including interferons, are noted. The authors suggest novel approaches, including cytokines, especially IFN-gamma, which is the most important in the formation of general immunity, including its combination with IFN-alpha, -beta, and lambda.

Purpose of the study. To evaluate the role of chronic chlamydial infection in the genesis of proliferative processes in the female genital area.Materials and methods. The study involved 267 women aged from 27 to 43 years. Depending on the severity of the pathological process in the genital tract and the presence of the Chlamydia trachomatis infection, 6 groups were distinguished: 1st — 30 somatically healthy women without pathologies of the female reproductive system; 2nd and 3rd — those with inflammatory processes in the reproductive organs of non-chlamydial (36) and chlamydial nature (38); 4th and 5th — those with proliferative processes in the pelvic organs of non-chlamydial (50) and chlamydial nature (58); 6th — patients with cervical cancer (55). The PCR and ELISA (Chem Well, USA) methods were used to identify the presence of Chlamydia trachomatis. The concentration of estradiol (E) and progesterone (P) (ELISA) in the blood, as well as their ratio (E/P), was determined. The as-obtained data were compared with the results of cytomorphological and ultrasound studies.Results. Proliferative processes in the genital tract are accompanied by a change in the level of female sex hormones, in particular, by a sharp decrease in progesterone in the luteal phase of the cycle against the background of absolute or relative hyperestrogenism. These changes are more pronounced in women with chronic chlamydial infection. A connection between the presence of the infectious agent in question and the severity of hyperplastic processes in the female genital tract is established. A comparison of the obtained morphological data with the blood progesterone content in women without Chlamydia trachomatis showed that an increase in the severity of disorders correlates with a decrease in the level of female hormones. In women infected with Chlamydia trachomatis, the severity of hyperplastic processes shifts to the right, i. e. towards normal progesterone values. Therefore, even at maximal progesterone concentrations close to the reference values, a greater severity of pathological changes is observed.Conclusion. The obtained results demonstrate the undeniable role of chronic chlamydial infection in initiating a hormonal imbalance towards absolute or relative hyperestrogenia with a severe progesterone deficiency. A causal relationship of the Chlamydia trachomatis infectious agent with the severity of hyperplastic processes in the pelvic organs is established. It is concluded that the detection of chlamydial infection should be considered as an essential element in the screening and prevention of hyperplastic processes.

Chlamydia trachomatis usually causes mucosal infections, bringing considerable morbidity and socioeconomic burden worldwide. We previously revealed that IL-27/IL-27R mediates protection against chlamydial invasion by promoting a protective Th1 response and suppressing neutrophilic inflammation. Here, we used the mouse model of Chlamydia muridarum (C. muridarum) respiratory infections to further investigate the impact of IL-27 signaling in the DCs-regulated immune response, since an elevated IL-27/IL-27R expression in DCs was identified following chlamydial infection. An adoptive transfer of Chlamydia muridarum-stimulated DCs to wild-type mice approach was subsequently used, and the donor-DCs-promoted resistance with a higher Th1 response against chlamydial infection was attenuated when DCs lacking IL-27R were used as donor cells. Flow cytometry analysis revealed the suppression of IL-27 signaling on DCs phenotypic maturation. A further functional maturation analysis of DCs revealed that IL-27 signaling restricted the protein and mRNA expression of IL-10 from DCs following infection. Thus, these findings suggest that IL-27 signaling could support the Th1 response via inhibiting IL-10 production in DCs, thus mediating the protective host defense against chlamydial respiratory infection.

FcγRI is an important cell surface receptor reported to be involved in multiple immune responses, although it has not yet been extensively studied in intracellular bacterial infections. Here, using a mouse model of C. muridarum respiratory infection, we were able to determine how FcγRI regulates the host resistance against chlamydial invasion. According to our findings, the chlamydial loads and pulmonary pathology were both reduced in FcγRI deficient (Fcgr1−/−) animals. Being infected, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, DCs, CD4+/CD8+ T cells, and effector Th1 subsets displayed increased FcγRI expression patterns. Altered infiltration of these cells in the lungs of Fcgr1−/− mice further demonstrated the regulation of FcγRI in the immune system and identified Th1 cells and macrophages as its target cell populations. As expected, we observed that the Th1 response was augmented in Fcgr1−/− mice, while the pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage polarization was constrained. These findings might indicate FcγRI as a potential regulator for host immunity and inflammatory response during chlamydial infection.

Background. Chlamydial infection (СI) in infertile men is associated from the one hand, with a violation of the androgen­estrogen balance, and on the other hand, with the development of dysthyroidism and the growth of antibodies to thyroid peroxidase (Ab TPO). These changes may cause the development of autoimmune thyroiditis (AT) and subclinical or manifested hypothyroidism associated with AT. The purpose of the study was to determine the features of impaired functionality of the testes and thyroid gland in infertile men against the background of СI and the effect of antibacterial and antioxidant therapy. Materials and methods. The study involved 30 men aged 23–44 years who had been in an infertile marriage for more than a year, including 15 with chronic prostatitis (CP) on the background of СI (first group) and 15 with latent CI without inflammation of the urogenital tract (second group). The presence of CI was verified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method and the level of antibodies to chlamydia. The parameters of spermogram were analyzed according to WHO criteria. Treatment included the appointment of azithromycin and immunomodulator lavamax for 15 and 18 days. Patients with CP used rectal anti­inflammatory suppositories vitaprost for 20 days. After a course of antibiotic therapy, a complex of antioxidants was prescribed for 45 days: cefasel 100 µg and vitamin E 200 mg per day. Before treatment, after 1 and 2 months after treatment, in the patients the parameters of spermogram, blood levels of testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), thyroid stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, Ab TPO were investigated. The control group consisted of 10 practically healthy men of the corresponding age with normozoospermia (NZS) and without СI. Results. After providing the antibiotic therapy in patients with CP, against the background of the elimination of inflammation of the prostate­vesicular complex (group 1), the percentage of mobile spermatozoids significantly increased. NZS did not follow the treatment one month later in the patients with latent CI (group 2). After therapy with antioxidants NZS was established in 73.3 % of cases in group 1 and 53.3 % in group 2. After 2 months of treatment in group 1, the rate of T level normalization in blood and the ratio of T/E2 increased. At the same time, the normalization of the content of T and T/E2 in the group 2 was not significant. In the post­treatment period, changes in thyroid functionality were not detected, but there was a significant decrease in the level of Ab TPO. Conclusions. Reduction of the inflammatory process in the prostate and СI as the factor causing it promotes the activation of sperm moti­lity in infertile men. The following appointment of antioxidant therapy significantly increases the endocrine function of the testis and improves the androgen­estrogen balance. The use of specific antibiotic therapy and short­term appointment for 15 days of cefasil and vitamin E in latent СI does not have positive effect on spermatogenesis. In the future, the use of antioxidants within one month significantly stimulates the sperm motility, but does not change the level of T and E2. Two­stage therapy of infertility at СI does not impact the thyroid functional state, but contributes to lowering blood levels of Ab TPO.

To date, clinical data have convincingly shown that C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae infectious can cause serious diseases with severe complications and consequences. There are assumptions that the developed chronic chlamydial infection can become an important factor in the pathogenesis of the gastrointestinal tract diseases, which are manifested in the so-called post-infectious period. It is commonly known that chlamydial infection has a tropism to the cylindrical epithelium, which covers the human mucous membrane of the urethra, cervix, rectum, conjunctiva of the eyes and the throat. However, the role of the causative agents of chlamydial infections, such as C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae, in the occurrence of the gastrointestinal tract diseases has not been studied. In order to study the possible relationship between the gastrointestinal diseases and the presence of chlamydial infection markers, we have selected a group of patients with the gastrointestinal diseases and detected antibodies to C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae and DNA of these pathogens in blood serum, liver biopsy and bile ducts. As a result, C. trachomatis DNA in blood serum was detected in 50% of cases, and in liver biopsies — in 59.3%. A new approach has been developed in the serological diagnosis of chlamydial infection caused by C. trachomatis, which allowed for revealing diagnostic antibody titers in 51.9% of cases in this group of patients, and in the comparison group — in 11.6% of cases. Among 50% of patients, in whom DNA was revealed in blood serum, it was also revealed in 64.3% of cases in biopsy samples of gastrointestinal organs. Upon detection of C. trachomatis DNA in blood serum, antibodies to the “cultural” antigen were detected in 60.1% of cases, and with the simultaneous detection of C. trachomatis DNA in blood serum and gastrointestinal organs, they were found in 72.2% of cases. Simultaneous detection of C. trachomatis, both in blood serum and in the gastrointestinal tract, may indicate the ability of C. trachomatis to spread hematogenously and infect organs away from the primary focus of infection. The obtained data absolutely require further study in light of the identification of the relationship between the detection of the pathogen and the development of the gastrointestinal pathology. But in general, the results are not yet studied evidence of the possible gastrointestinal organs infection by C. trachomatis.

Chlamydia are Gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens responsible for a broad spectrum of human and animal diseases. In humans, Chlamydia trachomatis is the most prevalent bacterial sexually transmitted infection worldwide and is the causative agent of trachoma (infectious blindness) in disadvantaged populations. Over the course of its developmental cycle, Chlamydia extensively remodels its intracellular niche and parasitises the host cell for nutrients, with substantial resulting changes to the host cell transcriptome and proteome. However, little information is available on the impact of chlamydial infection on the host cell epigenome and global gene regulation. Regions of open eukaryotic chromatin correspond to nucleosome-depleted regions, which in turn are associated with regulatory functions and transcription factor binding. We applied formaldehyde-assisted isolation of regulatory elements enrichment followed by sequencing (FAIRE-Seq) to generate temporal chromatin maps of C. trachomatis-infected human epithelial cells in vitro over the chlamydial developmental cycle. We detected both conserved and distinct temporal changes to genome-wide chromatin accessibility associated with C. trachomatis infection. The observed differentially accessible chromatin regions include temporally-enriched sets of transcription factors, which may help shape the host cell response to infection. These regions and motifs were linked to genomic features and genes associated with immune responses, re-direction of host cell nutrients, intracellular signalling, cell–cell adhesion, extracellular matrix, metabolism and apoptosis. This work provides another perspective to the complex response to chlamydial infection, and will inform further studies of transcriptional regulation and the epigenome in Chlamydia-infected human cells and tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is a major cause of sexually transmitted diseases worldwide. The multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of clinical samples from random heterosexual chlamydia patients who were either asymptomatic or reported clinical manifestations of genital chlamydiosis (n = 63) in each of the seven major regions of the Republic of Belarus in 2017–2018 revealed 12 different CT sequence types (STs). We found seven known STs, ST4, ST6, ST9, ST13, ST38, ST95 and ST110, and five novel variants, namely ST271–ST275, which have not been detected elsewhere thus far. The ST4 variant was predominant (27/63, 42.9%) and detected in six out of seven regions. The two most common STs, ST9 and ST13, were regularly seen in four out of seven regions. In contrast, the remaining STs, ST6, ST38, ST95, ST110, and novel STs271-275, surfaced randomly in different parts of the country. The emergence of novel STs was registered in two regions, namely Minsk (ST271 and ST275) and Brest (ST271, ST272, ST273, and ST274). All the STs of detected CT strains were clustered into two Groups, I and III, which are characteristic of CT urogenital strains. No STs typical for Group II, specific to the LGV strains, were revealed. Our study contributes to better understanding the genetic diversity and molecular evolution of CT, one of the most important pathogens in public health worldwide.

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This article presents a scheme of antibiotic treatment of children with acute sinus infections, paired with Chlamydial infection, which is based on the use of cyclic poliantibiotikoterapii macrolide drugs. The most significant advantage of this therapy is the high degree of eradication of Chlamydial agent (87.5 %), which allows high-quality conduct antichlamydial treatment prevents the chronization inflammation, disseminated infection and helps reduce the number of complications. Recommended for use in medical practice physicians otorhinolaryngology for the treatment of acute sinusitis in children, coupled with the Chlamydial infection.

The article presents the data of literary sources, which reflect the relevance of the problem of chlamydial infection in children. The obtained data on the influence of Ch.pn. on the formation of chronic somatic pathology in childhood have been analyzed. In recent years, many foreign and domestic authors have observed significant changes in the microbial spectrum of pathogens that cause diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tract. Chlamydia persist in epithelial cells and fibrocytes of infected mucous membranes, as well as in monocytes and tissue macrophages, which contributes to their systemic spread throughout the body. Persistence contributes to the development of immunosuppression, which unfavourably affects the course of chronic non-infectious pathology (bronchial asthma, oncological processes). The greatest tropism of chlamydia is experienced in the cylindrical epithelium of various organs and tissues. At the present time, they are among the main pathogens in the structure of acute respiratory diseases. In this case, the combined infection of the respiratory tract with viruses, pneumococcus and its associations, streptococcus and hemophilus influenza is found. It has been proved that in a number of cases, chlamydial infection in children does not affect the nature of clinical manifestations of acute respiratory viral infection, with the exception of obstructive syndrome. Chlamydial infection is one of the problems that arose sharply in the end of the twentieth century. This is due to its significant distribution in different age groups of the population, ranging from newborns, with a unique ability to strike various organs and systems, often with a chronic course. The number of children with combined pathology is increasing. First of all, this is a combination of chlamydia-cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus-chlamydia, toxoplasmosischlamydia-giardiasis-helminthic invasion. It has been proved that chlamydia is changing the adequacy of physiological reactions in an organism. Based on literature data, the prevalence and clinical manifestations of chlamydial infection in children are shown. The interrelation of chlamydial infection with the course of respiratory diseases, bronchial asthma, which have protracted and recurrent nature is stated. The role of chlamydial infection in stimulation of lymphoid tissue hyperplasia has been proved. The value of chlamydial infection in the genesis of bronchial asthma has not yet been studied, but researchers note high rates of infection with this pathogen. It has been proved that intracellular pathogens increase the inflammatory process in the respiratory tract, which leads to the development of structural rearrangements and activation of the process of remodelling the wall of the bronchial wall. It has been demonstrated that among patients with stable bronchial asthma, a high level of serological evidence of clinically asymptomatic chlamydial infections has been reported. It has been discovered in modern studies that chlamydia pneumoniae DNA has been detected in sputum in children, both in the form of a mono infection, and in association with a pneumococcus or a hemophilus influenza. The role of chlamydia in the development of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular pathology has been established. The connection of the development of myocardial infarction with chlamydial infection is revealed. Atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemia develops faster in the presence of not only viable but inactivated chlamidophyll in the body. It has been shown that the presence of chlamydia in the renal tissue affects the development and course of IgA nephropathy (Bergers disease). The reason for the development of reactive arthritis in children may also be chlamydia. The most common pathogens of arthritis in children nowadays are intracellular infections, as well as various combinations of listed above pathogens, which should be taken into account at the stage of diagnosis of the disease and in the choice of therapeutic tactics. The role of chlamydial infection in the development of granulomatosis has been proved. Ch. ðn. is considered as a possible infectious agent with the development of a number of neurological diseases, primarily Alzheimers, sometimes acute meningitis.

The review highlights the historical aspects and modern concepts of laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infection. The studies on investigation of different strains of Chlamydia trachomatis performed in Russian Federation and abroad are summarized. The results of research of domestic and foreign scientists aimed at finding the perfect laboratory test for identification of C. trachomatis on the basis of molecular biological methods are analyzed and presented.

The article presents the information of start Interdisciplinary program to identify risk factors for the most common infectious diseases in the population ofRussiathrough screening laboratory tests with a view to timely detection and prevention of infectious diseases in children inRussia.