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We present measurements and theoretical modeling demonstrating the capability of Doppler Broadened annihilation gamma Spectroscopy (DBS) to provide element-specific information from the topmost atomic layer of surfaces that are either clean or covered with adsorbates or thin films. Our measurements show that the energy spectra of Doppler-shifted annihilation gamma photons emitted following the annihilation of positrons from the topmost atomic layers of clean gold (Au) and copper (Cu) differ significantly. With the aid of the positron annihilation-induced Auger electron spectroscopy (PAES) performed simultaneously with DBS, we show that measurable differences between the Doppler broadened gamma spectra from Au and Cu surfaces in the high energy region of the gamma spectra can be used for the quantification of surface chemical composition. Modeling the measured Doppler spectra from clean Au and Cu surfaces using gamma spectra obtained from ab initio calculations after considering the detector energy resolution and surface positronium formation pointed to an increase in the relative contribution of gamma from positron annihilation with valence shell electrons. The fit result also suggests that the surface-trapped positrons predominantly annihilated with the delocalized valence shell (s and p) electrons that extended into the vacuum as compared to the highly localized d electrons. Simultaneous DBS and PAES measurements from adsorbate (sulfur, oxygen, carbon) or thin film (selenium (Se), graphene) covered Cu surface showed that it is possible to distinguish and quantify the surface adsorbate and thin-film composition just based on DBS. DBS of elemental surfaces presents a promising avenue for developing a characterization tool that can be used to probe external and internal surfaces that are inaccessible by conventional surface science techniques.

Magnetic bottle Time-of-Flight (ToF) spectrometers can measure the energy spectra of all electrons emitted into a 2$\pi$ sr solid angle simultaneously, greatly reducing data collection time. When the detection of the annihilation gamma ($\gamma$) and the detection of the electron (e) are used as timing signals for ToF spectrometers, the e-$\gamma$ time difference spectra (e-$\gamma$ TDS) are reflective of the positron-induced electron energy distributions provided the times between the impact of the positrons and the emission of the annihilation gammas are short compared to the flight times of the electrons. This is typically the case since positrons have short lifetime in solids ($\sim$ 100 - 500 ps) compared to the flight times of the secondary electrons ($10^2$ ns to $10^3$ ns). However, if the positron leaves the surface as a positronium atom (a bound electron-positron state), the annihilation gamma photons can be appreciably delayed due to the longer ortho-positronium (o-Ps) lifetime. This can result in an e-$\gamma$ TDS having an exponential tail with a decay constant related to the o-Ps lifetime. Here, we present an analysis of the e-$\gamma$ TDS using a Monte Carlo model which estimates the spectral contributions resulting from o-Ps annihilations. By removing the contributions from the delayed gamma signal, the energy spectrum of Positron Impact-Induced Secondary electrons (PIISE) can be isolated. Furthermore, our analysis allows an estimation of the intensity of the exponential tail in the e-$\gamma$ TDS providing a method to measure the fraction of positrons that form Ps at solid surfaces without relying on assumed 100% Ps emitting surfaces for calibration.

We present a novel method for the analysis of the Doppler broadened spectrum of gamma photons emitted following the annihilation of surface trapped positrons with the electrons of bilayer graphene supported on polycrystalline Cu substrate. The method relies on the measurement of the energy of the Doppler shifted annihilation gamma photons in coincidence with the Auger electrons emitted following the decay of the contemporaneously produced annihilation induced hole. Through the selection of annihilation gamma corresponding to O KVV (adsorbed O), C KVV (graphene), and Cu MVV (substrate) Auger transitions, we have decomposed the annihilation gamma spectrum into spectral components representing annihilation of the positron with 1s electrons of C and O and 3p electrons of Cu. These experimentally derived Doppler broadened gamma line shapes agrees well with the theoretically derived model line shapes demonstrating the ability of our method to resolve a complex Doppler line shapes into its veiled electronic level constituents which has, heretofore, only been achieved through theoretical analysis. We have also demonstrated the reversibility of the analysis method by decomposing the Auger spectra into regions which corresponds to the annihilation gamma photons with a large Doppler shift or to Auger spectra correlated with annihilation gamma photons with a small doppler shift. The reverse analysis provides additional proof that Auger transitions following deep valence annihilations result in the emission of low energy electrons.

We describe here an efficient machine-learning based approach for the optimization of parameters used for extracting the arrival time of waveforms, in particular those generated by the detection of 511 keV annihilation gamma-rays by a 60 cm3 coaxial high purity germanium detector (HPGe). The method utilizes a type of artificial neural network (ANN) called a self-organizing map (SOM) to cluster the HPGe waveforms based on the shape of their rising edges. The optimal timing parameters for HPGe waveforms belonging to a particular cluster are found by minimizing the time difference between the HPGe signal and a signal produced by a BaF2 scintillation detector. Applying these variable timing parameters to the HPGe signals achieved a gamma-coincidence timing resolution of ~ 4.3 ns at the 511 keV photo peak (defined as 511 +- 50 keV) and a timing resolution of ~ 6.5 ns for the entire gamma spectrum--without rejecting any valid pulses. This timing resolution approaches the best obtained by analog nuclear electronics, without the corresponding complexities of analog optimization procedures. We further demonstrate the universality and efficacy of the machine learning approach by applying the method to the generation of secondary electron time-of-flight spectra following the implantation of energetic positrons on a sample.

Here we describe an advanced multi functional, variable-energy positron beam system capable of measuring the energies of multiple positron-induced electrons in coincidence with the Doppler-shifted gamma photon resulting from the annihilation of the correlated positron. The measurements were carried out using the unique characteristics of the digital time-of-flight spectrometer and the gamma spectrometer available with the advanced positron beam system. These measurements have resulted in (i) the first digital time of flight spectrum of positron annihilation-induced Auger electrons generated using coincident signals from a high-purity Ge detector and a micro-channel plate; (ii) a two-dimensional array of the energy of Doppler-broadened annihilation gamma and the time of flight of positron-annihilation induced Auger electrons or secondary electrons measured in coincidence with the annihilation gamma photon; and (iii) the time of flight spectra of multiple secondary electrons ejected from a bilayer graphene surface as a result of the impact and(or) annihilation of positrons. The novelty of the gamma electron coincidence spectroscopy has been demonstrated by extracting the Doppler-broadened spectrum of gamma photons emitted due to the annihilation of positrons exclusively with 1s electrons of carbon. The width of the extracted Doppler-broadened gamma spectrum has been found to be consistent with the expected broadening of the annihilation gamma spectrum due to the momentum of the 1s electrons in carbon., Comment: The following article has been submitted to Review of Scientific Instruments. After it is published, it will be found at https://publishing.aip.org/resources/librarians/products/journals/

In this paper, we present and analyze measurements of the positron induced electron spectra (PIES) from highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG). The spectra were obtained using a time of flight spectrometer attached to a variable energy positron beam. In the first measurements presented, the system was configured to obtain high resolution data from the annihilation induced KVV Auger transition of carbon. In the second set of data presented, PIES spectra were obtained for 3 different positron beam energies (1.25 eV, 3.5 eV and 4.5 eV). The resulting time of flight (ToF)-PIES exhibit contributions arising from either positron annihilation induced Auger processes (PAES), Auger mediated positron sticking (AMPS), or secondary electron emission. Our analysis indicates that for incident positron energies 3.5 eV and less, the ToF-PIES can be accounted for considering only two mechanisms: positron annihilation induced Auger processes or positron sticking., Comment: Presented at 18th International Conference on Positron Annihilation, August 19-24, 2018 | Orlando, USA. The following article has been accepted by AIP Conference Proceedings. After it is published, it will be found at this https://aip.scitation.org/journal/apc

Preliminary results are presented from a new positron beam system currently under development at the University of Texas at Arlington for the coincident energy measurement of Doppler-shifted annihilation quanta and positron-induced Auger electrons. We report data based on an analysis of the pulses resulting from the detection of positron induced secondary electrons by a micro-channel plate detector in coincidence with the pulses resulting from the detection of associated annihilation gamma rays in a NaI(Tl) gamma detector., Comment: Presented at 18th International Conference on Positron Annihilation, August 19-24, 2018 | Orlando, USA. The following article has been accepted by AIP Conference Proceedings. After it is published, it will be found at https://aip.scitation.org/journal/apc

We present Doppler broadened gamma spectra, obtained using the newly developed advanced positron beam at the University of Texas at Arlington, from a sample consisting of 6 to 8 layers of graphene (MLG) on polycrystalline Cu. The kinetic energy of the positron beam was varied form 2 eV to 20 keV allowing for a depth resolved measurement. The ratio curves formed by dividing the measured Doppler broadened gamma spectra obtained at low positron kinetic energies (~2eV) to the gamma spectra obtained at 20 keV were compared to ratio curves found by dividing the calculated spectra of bulk graphite to bulk Cu. The ratio curves obtained from the measured results show qualitative agreement with those obtained from the calculated spectra. In particular, both sets of curves indicate a much reduced intensity at high momentum. The agreement between the measured and calculated curves is consistent with the hypothesis that the 2eV spectra correspond to the Doppler broadened spectra from the thin overlayer of Graphene (which we anticipate should be similar to the spectra obtained from bulk graphite) and that the spectra taken at 20 keV corresponds to bulk Cu due to the fact that most of the positrons implanted at this energy annihilate in the Cu substrate. The results taken at 2 eV provide evidence that it is possible to obtain chemically sensitive information from the top atomic layers of surfaces (both internal and external) from an analysis of the high momentum tail of the Doppler broadened gamma spectra obtained from the annihilation of positrons at the surface., Comment: Presented at 18th International Conference on Positron Annihilation, August 19-24, 2018 | Orlando, USA. The following article has been accepted by AIP Conference Proceedings. After it is published, it will be found at https://aip.scitation.org/journal/apc

Positronium (Ps) formation on the surface of clean polycrystalline copper (Cu), highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) and multi layer graphene (MLG) grown on a polycrystalline copper substrate has been investigated as a function of incident positron kinetic energy (1.5eV to 1keV). Measurments on Cu indicate that as the kinetic energy of the incident positrons increases from 1.5eV to 900eV, the fraction of positrons that form Ps ($f_{Ps}$) decreases from ~0.5 to ~0.3. However, in HOPG and MLG, instead of a monotonic decrease of $f_{Ps}$ with positron kinetic energy, a sharp peak is observed at ~ 5eV and above ~200eV,remains nearly constant in HOPG and MLG. We propose that in HOPG and MLG, at low incident positron energies the Ps formation is dominated either by a surface Plasmon assisted electron pick up process or by an energy dependent back scattering process. Both these processes can explain the peak observed and the present data can help to augment the understanding of Ps formation from layered materials., Comment: Presented at 18th International Conference on Positron Annihilation, August 19-24, 2018 | Orlando, USA. The following article has been accepted by AIP Conference Proceedings. After it is published, it will be found at https://aip.scitation.org/journal/apc

We report the first direct observation of electron emission into the vacuum as a result of a VVV Auger transition resulting from the relaxation of a deep hole in the valence band. A beam of low energy (<1.25eV) positrons was used to deposit positrons onto the surface of samples consisting of single layer graphene, multi-layer graphene and graphite. The distribution of electrons emitted from the samples as a result of the annihilation of the positron showed peak extending up to ~12 eV with a maximum at ~4eV. The observed peak was ~17 times larger than the previously observed annihilation induced C KVV peak. An analysis based upon a density functional theory calculation of the positron annihilation rates indicates that the width and intensity of the peak is consistent with electron emission resulting from VVV Auger transition excited by the annihilation of valence band electrons. Good agreement was found between the data from the single layer graphene on Cu surface with a theoretical line shape found from a self-folding of the density of states for a free standing graphene layer. The agreement between the theoretical and measured intensities for the KVV and VVV transitions indicates that the branching ratio for holes to decay via an Auger transition is nearly the same in both cases (i.e. close to 100%). Our results suggest the possibility of using annihilation induced VVV Auger spectroscopy to study the properties of the local density of states and the hole decay processes in materials in which the valence band width exceeds the work function., Comment: Version 2 - Corrected minor typos. Inconsistency with title fixed, Author list changed