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Background Past studies in high-income countries have shown an association between unintended (unwanted or mistimed) pregnancy and child development; no national-level studies in low-and-middle-income countries have been conducted. Moreover, extant studies often adjust for potential mediators, underestimating the average population effect. Methods We aimed to estimate the effect of unintended pregnancy on early childhood development in Ecuadorian children aged 3 to 5, participating in the National Health and Nutrition Survey 2018. We used a design-based doubly robust estimate. First, we used propensity score matching (1:1) to identify a subsample equally likely to come from a desired vs. unintended pregnancy based on geographic area, household income, paternal intendedness, the mother's current marital status, age, ethnicity, and educational level, depressive symptoms, and the child's gender and age. Then, we used a logistic regression model to explore the relation of maternal pregnancy intentions with adequate development, as defined by the Early Childhood Development Index (ECDI). While exempt from review by an Institutional Review Board, this secondary research was conducted in accord with prevailing ethical principles. Results Among 1694 observations representing 162,285 Ecuadorian children, unintended pregnancy associated with inadequate development (odds ratio: 1.56; 95% confidence interval: 1.06; 2.29), after adjusting for all relevant confounders. Unintended pregnancy was also negatively associated with all four ECDI domains, socio-emotional development being the most affected. Discussion Our doubly robust design found evidence of the relation between the maternal perception of pregnancy and early child development. Addressing this relation to achieve reproductive justice entails considering a wide spectrum of population health and legal interventions to allow adequate access to education, contraception, and safe abortion. Moreover, pre- and post-natal check-ups could screen for unintended pregnancy and provide support accordingly., Author(s): Jorge Andrés Delgado-Ron [sup.1] , Federico Andrade-Rivas [sup.1] [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.17091.3e, 0000 0001 2288 9830, School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, , 2206 [...]

Abstract Context: Majority of epilepsy begins in childhood and may adversely affect cognitive development making children with epilepsy (CWE) vulnerable to educational problems. Paucity of studies from India evaluating the cognitive development and academic performance of school-going CWE emphasizes the need for this study. Aims: The aim of this article is to assess the cognitive development and academic performance of school-going CWE, between 6 and 12 years of age. Settings and Design: This cross-sectional study was carried out in the Pediatric Neurology Clinic in a tertiary level teaching hospital. Materials and Methods: Forty CWE aged 6-12 years, attending regular school, and taking anti-epileptic drugs were assessed for their cognitive development (IQ) using Malin's Intelligence Scale for Indian Children and their academic performance using the school annual report card. Statistical Analysis: Tests of significance such as χ[sup.2], one-way analysis of variance, and Kruskal-Wallis test were used, P < 0.05 taken as statistically significant. Results: The mean IQ of CWE was 85.6. Sixteen children (42.1%) had an IQ of 90 and above, 15 (39.5%) had an IQ of 70-89, and 7 (18.42%) had Intellectual Disability (IQ Conclusion: The majority of school-going CWE on treatment (81.58%) did not have intellectual disability with average-to-good performance in school. Seizure control affected academic performance positively. Keywords: Academic performance, cognitive development, epilepsy, IQ, Author(s): Aayushi N. Kacheria [1]; Sujata V. Kanhere [1]; Anjalee Goel [1] Introduction Epilepsy is a common neurological condition.[sup.[1]] One-sixth of people with epilepsy reside in India.[sup.[2,3]] Majority of epilepsy [...]

The main purpose of the present study was to develop a measure examining parent-child interaction, particularly in academic experiences of children. Two studies provided evidence for reliability and validity of 19-item scale. First determining the factorial structure of Parent-Child Interaction Scale (PCIS) was aimed. 256 parents were participated in exploratory factor analysis. According to the results of item analysis, five items were excluded from the item pool because of having low factor loading. Exploratory factor analysis was applied with 14-items. Three factor solution was extracted. The three-factor structure was accounted for 51% total variance of PCIS. As for confirmatory factor analysis, the further analysis was performed with 199 parents. The three-factor structure was tested. Sufficient fit indices were found from confirmatory factor analysis. This means that three factor structure of PCIS was confirmed. Additionally, convergent validity was examined. The results from average variance extracted and composite reliability analysis revealed that convergent validity of the PCIS is sufficient. Finally, internal consistency coefficient was investigated for reliability analysis. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient supplied evidence for reliability. Overall, it was stated that the PCIS was reliable and valid measure to assess parent-child interaction. It was well known that the concept of parent-child interaction has a wide spread of uses. It may be expressed that the PCIS has potentials to present substantial contributions in education and psychology researches., Author(s): Kerem Coskun [sup.1] , Ozkan Çikrikçi [sup.2] , Betty Liebovich [sup.3] , Cihan Kara [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.449164.a, 0000 0004 0399 2818, Education Faculty, Artvin Coruh University, , [...]

Background: Prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may disrupt normal fetal and postnatal growth. Studies have mainly focused on individual aspects of growth at specific time points using single chemical exposure models. However, humans are exposed to multiple EDCs simultaneously, and growth is a dynamic process. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the associations between prenatal exposure to EDCs and children's body mass index (BMI) growth trajectories using single exposure and mixture modeling approaches. Methods: Using data from the INfancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA) Spanish birth cohort (n = 1,911), prenatal exposure to persistent chemicals [hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 4-4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB-138, -150, and -180), 4 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)] and nonpersistent chemicals (8 phthalate metabolites, 7 phenols) was assessed using blood and spot urine concentrations. BMI growth trajectories were calculated from birth to 9 years of age using latent class growth analysis. Multinomial regression was used to assess associations for single exposures, and Bayesian weighted quantile sum (BWQS) regression was used to evaluate the EDC mixture's association with child growth trajectories. Results: In single exposure models exposure to HCB, DDE, PCBs, and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) were associated with increased risk of belonging to a trajectory of lower birth size followed by accelerated BMI gain by 19%-32%, compared with a trajectory of average birth size and subsequent slower BMI gain [e.g., relative risk ratio (RRR) per doubling in DDE concentration = 1.19 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.35); RRR for PFNA= 1.32 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.66)]. HCB and DDE exposure were also associated with higher probability of belonging to a trajectory of higher birth size and accelerated BMI gain. Results from the BWQS regression showed the mixture was positively associated with increased odds of belonging to a BMI trajectory of lower birth size and accelerated BMI gain (odds ratio per 1-quantile increase of the mixture = 1.70; credible interval: 1.03, 2.61), with HCB, DDE, and PCBs contributing the most. Discussion: This study provides evidence that prenatal EDC exposure, particularly persistent EDCs, may lead to BMI trajectories in childhood characterized by accelerated BMI gain. Given that accelerated growth is linked to a higher disease risk in later life, continued research is important. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11103, Introduction Infant and early childhood growth and adiposity status are important factors in promoting healthy childhood development and well-being during adulthood. (1) Children with overweight or obesity are more likely [...]

The negative effects of deprivation on adolescents' psychological and behavioral adjustments have been well documented, but limited information is known about how deprivation affects adolescents' cognitive ability via maternal and paternal involvements in the Chinese context. Furthermore, the rural-urban differences in this influencing mechanism have been rarely investigated. In this study, a nationally representative sample of 10,750 Chinese adolescents (45.1% females; mean age = 13.58) from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) was utilized to enhance the understanding on the mediating and moderating mechanisms between deprivation and adolescents' cognitive ability. Findings revealed that deprivation predicted a poor cognitive ability of adolescents, whereas only the maternal involvement demonstrated a mediating effect. The level of deprivation among urban adolescents was lower than that among rural adolescents, and the levels of parental involvement and cognitive ability among urban adolescents were higher than those among rural counterparts. Moreover, deprivation had a greater impact on the cognitive ability among urban adolescents compared to rural adolescents. Implications for future research, policies, and interventions were discussed., Author(s): Shan Jiang [sup.1] , Lei Dong [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.10784.3a, 0000 0004 1937 0482, Department of Social Work, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, , Shatin, N.T., Hong [...]

Purpose: Children with autism are found to have delayed and heterogeneous gesture abilities. It is important to understand the growth of gesture abilities and the underlying factors affecting its growth. Addressing these issues can help to design effective intervention programs. Method: Thirty-five Chinese-speaking preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder ([M.sub.age] = 4.89 years, SD = 0.91; four girls) participated in four play sessions with their parents over 9 months. Their child-based factors including autism severity, intellectual functioning, and expressive language abilities were assessed. The gestures (deictic, iconic, and conventional) of the children and their parents were coded. Growth curve analyses were conducted to examine individual growth trajectories and the roles of child-based factors and parental input in shaping the children's gesture development. Results: Child-based factors and parental input predicted gesture development differently. Parents' gestures positively predicted their children's gestures of the same type. Autism severity negatively predicted iconic and conventional gestures. Overall growth was found in deictic rather than iconic and conventional gestures. Subgroup variation was also found. Specifically, children with better expressive language ability showed a decrease in deictic gestures. An increase in iconic and conventional gestures was found in children with more severe autism and those with poorer expressive language ability and intellectual functioning, respectively. Conclusions: Different types of gestures may have different growth trajectories and be predicted by different child-based factors. Particular attention should be given to children who never produced iconic gestures, which is more challenging and may not develop over a short period, and hence require direct instruction., Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is widely recognized as a complex, heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition. According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), [...]

Purpose: Measuring the growth of young children's vocabulary is important for researchers seeking to understand language learning as well as for clinicians aiming to identify early deficits. The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDIs) are parent report instruments that offer a reliable and valid method for measuring early productive and receptive vocabulary across a number of languages. CDI forms typically include hundreds of words, however, and so the burden of completion is significant. We address this limitation by building on previous work using item response theory (IRT) models to create computer adaptive test (CAT) versions of the CDIs. We created CDI-CATs for both comprehension and production vocabulary, for both American English and Mexican Spanish. Method: Using a data set of 7,633 English-speaking children ages 1236 months and 1,692 Spanish-speaking children ages 12-30 months, across three CDI forms (Words & Gestures, Words & Sentences, and CDI-III), we found that a 2-parameter logistic IRT model fits well for a majority of the 680 pooled vocabulary items. We conducted CAT simulations on this data set, assessing simulated tests of varying length (25-400 items). Results: Even very short CATs recovered participant abilities very well with little bias across ages. An empirical validation study with N = 204 children ages 15-36 months showed a correlation of r = .92 between language ability estimated from full CDI versus CDI-CAT forms. Conclusion: We provide our item bank along with fitted parameters and other details, offer recommendations for how to construct CDI-CATs in new languages, and suggest when this type of assessment may or may not be appropriate., Measuring children's early language is important for caregivers, clinicians, and researchers. The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDIs; Fenson et al., 2007) are a set of parent report forms that offer [...]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine feedback processing within the context of probabilistic learning in children with and without developmental language disorder (DLD). Method: The probabilistic category learning task required 28 children ages 813 years old to classify novel cartoon animals that differed in five binary features into one of two categories. Performance feedback guided incremental learning of the stimuli classifications. Feedback processing was compared between children with DLD and age-matched children with typical development (TD) by measuring the magnitude of feedback-related event-related potentials. Additionally, the likelihood of each group to repeat a classification of a stimulus following positive feedback ('stay' behavior) and change a classification following negative feedback ('switch' behavior) served as a measure of the consequence of feedback processing. Results: Children with DLD achieved lower classification accuracy on all learning outcomes compared to their peers with TD. Children with DLD were less likely than those with TD to demonstrate 'stay' behavior or to repeat a correct response following positive feedback. 'Switch' behavior or changing an incorrect response following negative feedback was found to be at chance level in both groups. Electrophysiological data indicated that children with DLD had a smaller feedback-related negativity effect (i.e., smaller differential processing of positive and negative feedback) when compared to children with TD. Although no differences were found between the two groups in the amplitude of the P3a, strong positive correlations were found between 'stay/switch' behavior and the P3a for children in the TD group only. Conclusions: Children with DLD do not appear to benefit from incremental corrective feedback to the same extent as their peers with TD. Processing differences are captured in the initial stages of feedback evaluation and in translating information carried by the feedback to inform future actions., The ability to learn from feedback is critical in the school environment as most teaching methods require that learners make use of external feedback to advance their learning. This is [...]

Chronic undernutrition among adolescents in developing countries has been identified as a major public health issue. Previous research has found associations between chronic undernutrition and academic performance outcomes in adolescents. There is need for localized research focusing on nutritional status and its association with educational outcomes among adolescents in different areas of Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was to examine whether chronic undernutrition (stunting) in adolescents in Ethiopia was correlated with various school performance outcomes. This study was a school-based cross-sectional study conducted in North Shewa zone, Ethiopia. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire. The researchers conducted multivariable linear regression analyses to investigate the relationship between stunting and four school performance outcomes, which included grade 8 Ministry exam score, all-subjects average score, English score, and Math score. The prevalence of stunting in this sample was 11%. After adjusting for all other variables in the model, stunting was positively associated with the grade eight Ministry exam score (P = -4.96; 95% [CI - 7.68, -2.25]; p < 0.001). In the multivariate analyses, sex (being female) was significantly associated with the grade eight Ministry exam score (P = -2.08; 95% CI [-3.81, -0.35]; p = 0.019 ), the all-subjects average score (P = -3.97; 95% CI [-5.51, - 2.43]; p< 0.001), English score (P = -3.72; 95% CI [-5.60, -1.84]; p < 0 .001), and Math score (P = -4.87; 95% CI [-7.02, -2.72]; p < 0.001). Residence (living in a rural area) was significantly associated with all-subjects average score ([beta] = -3.93; 95% CI [-5.81, -2.06]; p < 0.001), English score ([beta] = -2.65; 95% CI [-4.94, -0.35]; p = 0.024), and Math score ([beta] = -3.86; 95% CI [-6.50, -1.22];p = 0.004). Maternal education (grade 1-8) was significantly associated with English score (P = 5.46; 95% CI [1.31, 9.62]; p = 0.010) and Math score (P = 4.78; 95% CI [0.03, 9.53]; p = 0.049). These findings indicate that further research focusing on adolescent chronic undernutrition and educational outcomes as well as why chronic undernutrition is associated with certain performance outcomes and not others is needed before definitive conclusions can be made. Positive changes in child growth later in a child's life may have important implications for cognition. Key words: Adolescent health, Central Ethiopia, undernutrition, stunting, academic performance, INTRODUCTION Sufficient and nutrient-rich food in early childhood is necessary for proper growth and cognitive development among children and adolescents [1]. Infancy and early childhood contain critical periods of brain [...]

In this article, we engage with a question that has occupied the professional, policy, and popular discourse on education and socialization: are a child's development potential and outcomes contingent on innate abilities ('nature') or environment ('nurture') (Plomin, DeFries, & Fulker, 1988; Stiles, 2011; Tabery, 2014; Marley-Payne, 2021)? We explore what a Froebelian perspective can add to this question and how it can be translated into an early years context, focusing on its relevance for policy-making, supporting practitioners, and children's rights. There is ample neuroscientific evidence (e.g., Miller and Jones, 2014) that it never was a clear-cut dichotomy; both forces interact, with the role of the adult as a key moderating variable between the two. For educators, the question thus becomes what these insights mean for our role in supporting child wellbeing and development. We consider the question through a Froebelian lens, starting with an analysis of Froebel's own writings and the assemblages of his pedagogy to show the relevance of his approach in supporting practitioners in their role as mediators of the nature/nurture balance. The theoretical discussion is contextualized in contemporary Scottish Early Years policy and practice, highlighting untapped potential in an environment receptive to Froebelian ideals. We offer three propositions for how the engagement with Froebel's vision can guide those working in the Early Years, and how we frame their interaction with children's ecosystem. In conclusion, we argue for a more nuanced engagement with the nature/nurture debate, in particular in Early Years policy: rather than focusing on a false dichotomy of nature versus nurture, the article calls for a Froebelian reframing of our perspective on the Early Years. Keywords Froebel, Early Childhood Education, Environmental Influences, Child Development, Scotland, Educational Reform, 1. Introduction We seek to engage with a question that has occupied the professional, policy, and popular discourse on education and socialization, namely whether a child's development potential and outcomes [...]

Purpose: Understanding variability sources in early language interaction is critical to identifying children whose development is at risk and designing interventions. Variability across socioeconomic status (SES) groups has been extensively explored. However, SES is a limited individual clinical indicator. For example, it is not generally directly modifiable. The purpose of this study was to examine if child language ability, input quantity and quality, and dyadic interaction were associated with modifiable caregiver characteristics--self-efficacy and developmental knowledge. Method: We conducted secondary analyses using the baseline data (n = 41 dyads enrolled, n = 30 analyzed) from a longitudinal study. Mothers and children (1;0-2;3 [years; months]) in low-income households completed demographic questionnaires, self-efficacy and developmental knowledge measures, child language assessments, and interaction samples. We used linear regression models to examine the relationship between self-efficacy, developmental knowledge, and outcomes. Results: Child receptive and expressive language scores were significantly associated with mothers' self-efficacy, knowledge, and Efficacy x Knowledge interaction. Specifically, maternal self-efficacy was positively associated with child language only in the context of high developmental knowledge. Neither self-efficacy nor developmental knowledge was significantly associated with the number of total or different words mothers produced. However, self-efficacy was significantly and positively associated with the rate of child-initiated conversational turns per minute, controlling for the number of child utterances. Mothers with higher self-efficacy responded more readily to their children than those with lower self-efficacy. Conclusions: Child language ability and interaction quality vary based on modifiable parent characteristics. Modifiable individual characteristics should be considered in early language interaction within and across SES groups., High-quality early interaction is a powerful context for child language development, with long-term implications across outcome domains (Adamson et al., 2020). Understanding sources of variability in early experiences is critical [...]

Purpose: Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a developmental disorder where children fail to acquire language in the absence of a clear cause. Many studies have reported general motor deficits in children with DLD, but no studies have uncovered a cure. The purpose of our study is to better understand the underlying motor deficits in DLD, starting from uninhibited primary reflexes--which are the most basic stage of motor development. Knowledge of this motor-language relationship should lead to earlier and more targeted interventions in young children with DLD. Method: Children with DLD (n = 75, age range: 4-10 years) and 99 age-matched typically developing (TD) children completed a nonword repetition test to assess DLD and six other tests to assess primitive reflexes. Results: Children with DLD demonstrated higher levels of persistent primitive reflexes compared to TD children. As the scores for neuromotor immaturity increased, nonword repetition test scores decreased (r = -.44, p < .01). Results indicated that TD children exhibited lower neuromotor immaturity (M = 7.63, SD = 3.75) compared to children with DLD (M = 13.51, SD = 4.47). All primitive reflexes (the Moro reflex, the symmetrical tonic neck reflex in flexion and in extension, the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, the tonic labyrinthine reflex, and the Galant reflex) turned out to be statistically significantly different for the TD and DLD groups (p < .001). We also observed some differences between sexes. Conclusions: Children with impaired language development underwent slower neuromotor development. However, further research is needed to determine whether motor intervention programs that inhibit primitive reflexes are helpful for children with DLD., Developmental language disorder (DLD) is observed in children whose language skills, for no clear reason, develop in a nontypical manner. Notably, such significant language difficulties are not accompanied by any [...]

Purpose: This study compared attention control and flexibility in school-age children who stutter (CWS) and children who do not stutter (CWNS) based on their performance on a behavioral task and parent report. We used a classic attention-shifting paradigm that included manipulations of task goals and timing to test effects of varying demands for flexibility on switching accuracy and speed. We also examined associations between task performance, group, and relevant aspects of temperament. Method: Participants included 33 children (15 CWS, 18 CWNS) between 8 and 11 years of age. Children sorted stimuli that differed on two dimensions (color and shape) based on sorting rules that varied from block to block or trial to trial. Timing manipulations included intervals of 200-, 600-, or 1,200-ms durations for critical trial components. Temperament data were obtained via the Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Results: All children showed expected performance costs in response to block and trial manipulations; however, CWS were more affected by task conditions that increased demands for cognitive flexibility. Effects of interval durations also differed by group. Factor scores on the Children's Behavior Questionnaire indicated differences in effortful control between groups; however, this aspect of temperament did not mediate between-groups differences in switching performance. Conclusions: Findings suggest that stuttering continues to be associated with differences in attention control and flexibility beyond the preschool years. Further research is needed to clarify how these cognitive processes shape the development of stuttering throughout childhood., Attention is a basic building block for emerging executive functions (EFs; Blair & Ursache, 2011). The ability to focus attention on task-relevant stimuli or goals and switch attention flexibly from [...]