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This study examines the association between the boarding protection/care service models offered by the General Directorate of Social Services and Child Protection Agency and the behavioral and emotional problems children and adolescents under protection or care. The relational scanning model guided the preparation of the study sample. The study's scope included an analysis of 296 children and adolescents aged 4 to 18 who needed protection or care. Various service models benefit the kids, including children's homes, orphanages, and nursery schools. Data collection tools included the Personal Information form, the Scale of Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 4-18, and the Scale of Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 6-18. The software program used Mann Whitney and Kruskall Wallis test procedures to examine the study data. It has been noted that the behavioral and emotional disorders of children and adolescents receiving protection or care exhibit notable variations in the number of children in the family (p<0.05), the reasons for placement under protection or care (p<0.05), the kind of service model received (p<0.05), and the length of time the current service model has been assisting (p<0.05). Furthermore, it is noted that the kind of service model used has correlations with age (p<0.05), gender (p<0.05), the reason (p<0.05) for being placed under protection or care, and the length of time (p<0.05) that the person has benefitted from the present service model. The results are evaluated in light of the relevant literature covered.

Objective: The study aims to examine family functionality, emotion regulation difficulties, preference for loneliness, social exclusion, internalizing and externalizing disorders, and executive functions in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (CDS) and compare with ADHD, and ADHD+ Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Method: This study included 842 children aged 8-12 years. The subjects were categorized according to DSM-V as ADHD (n = 246), ADHD + ODD (n = 212), ADHD + CDS (n = 176), and Control group (n = 207). The solitude and social exclusion, difficulties in emotion dysregulation and Barkley SCT scales, Child Behavior Checklist, family assessment device, and Central Vital Signs (CNSVS) test were used. Results: According to the study, children with ADHD + CDS had higher rates of internalizing disorders. They also preferred being alone and experienced more difficulty communicating with their parents and solving problems within the family. Additionally, these children had difficulty recognizing and understanding the emotional reactions of others. The ADHD + ODD group presented a poorer performance on CNSVS domain tests except for the psychomotor speed test than other groups. Also, ADHD + CDS children had the lowest psychomotor speed scores and lower scores on reaction time and cognitive flexibility than pure ADHD children. Conclusion: This study will contribute to the etiology, treatment, and clinical discrimination of ADHD + CDS. (J. of Att. Dis. 2024; 28(12) 1555-1576)

Individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are more likely to have suicidal thoughts and behaviors. However, little research delineates the temporal and mechanistic associations between potential risk factors and suicidality in autistic individuals. We assessed 129 autistic and 121 age-matched and sex-assigned-at-birth-matched typically developing (TD) children and youth at baseline and follow-up. We evaluated internalizing/externalizing problems, bullying experiences, and three executive function tasks at a mean baseline age of 13.4 years (standard deviation: 4.2 years). After an average of 5.8 years (standard deviation: 1.7 years), we evaluated their suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The experiences of being bullied partially mediated the temporal relationship between pre-existing ASD and later-reported suicidal thoughts. Several cognitive flexibility and sustained attention indices mediated the temporal relationship between pre-existing ASD and later-reported suicidal thoughts. A multiple mediation model confirmed that bullying victimization and cognitive flexibility jointly mediated the temporal relationship between ASD and suicidal thoughts. Better cognitive flexibility and experiences of bullying victimization in autistic children/youth were both associated with higher risks of later-reported suicidal thoughts in adolescence/adulthood. School bullying-prevention programs and tailored clinical support for autistic youth with better cognitive flexibility are warranted for personalized suicide prevention for the autistic population.

This study investigated child-reported family obligation values (FOVs) in early adolescence as a moderator for associations between mother-, father-, and child-reported parental psychological control (PC) in early adolescence and child-reported internalizing and externalizing symptoms in middle and late adolescents in the Philippines. Data were drawn from three waves of a larger longitudinal study, when the Filipino youth were in late elementary grades (age M = 12.04, SD = 0.58; N = 91), in junior high school (age M = 15.03, SD = 0.59; N = 80), and in senior high school (age M = 17.00, SD = 0.59, N = 75). Results revealed that high levels of FOV buffered the positive associations between mother-reported PC and internalizing symptoms in late adolescence, and between child-reported PC and internalizing symptoms in middle and late adolescence, as well as externalizing symptoms in late adolescence. Conversely, low levels of FOV exacerbated the associations between mother- and child-reported PC on externalizing symptoms in late adolescence. Findings suggest that FOV may shape the meaning and influence of PC for children and adolescents in contexts where familial obligations are normative and important.

Language ability has been associated with emotion regulation (ER) ability. Children on the autism spectrum have greater rates of language delays and lower ER ability. Despite this, autism traits have not been considered or controlled for in past research. This study therefore examined the association between language ability and ER in young children with and without autism traits. An exploratory analysis was also conducted to examine the types of ER strategies used by young children with autism traits compared with young children without such traits. Ninety mother--toddler dyads participated in the study. Results showed greater receptive language ability was significantly associated with greater parent-reported ER ability both when children with, and children without, autism traits were included in the sample. Furthermore, greater expressive language ability was significantly associated with greater observed ER but only when children with autism traits were excluded from the analysis. These findings have clinical implications for early intervention development for both children with and without autism traits.

The present study investigated whether distinct developmental patterns of externalizing behaviors (EBs: hyperactivity-impulsivity, noncompliance, physical aggression) based on parent reports were repeatedly and differentially associated with separate dimensions of internalizing problems such as general anxiety, separation anxiety, and depressive symptoms across the early, middle, and late preschool years in a population birth cohort (N = 2,057, 50.7% boys). Six high trajectory classes obtained by latent growth modeling were used as longitudinal indicators of single EB and co-occurrent EBs. Children following low or moderate trajectories for all EBs served as the reference class. Results revealed that children in trajectory classes reflecting high levels of co-occurring EBs showed higher levels of general anxiety, separation anxiety, and depressive symptoms across the preschool years. In contrast, children in trajectory classes reflecting single EB manifested higher levels of some, but not all, dimensions of internalizing problems. In addition, their scores varied from one period to another. No sex differences were observed in the above associations. These results underline the need for comprehensive assessments across distinct types of EBs and internalizing problems to better reflect the characteristics that distinguish individual children. Finally, results suggest that children showing early co-occurrent EBs and internalizing symptoms may be an important group to target for in-depth assessment and possibly preventive intervention.

Based on 1,364 children across Grades 1, 3, and 5, the present study explored the mutualism of (externalizing and internalizing) behavioral problems and language, and whether social skills explained such mutualism. The random intercept cross-lagged panel models were conducted to control for between-person level variance and to explore mutualism of variables on the within-person level. Results indicated the mutualistic coupling of language and externalizing behavioral problems from Grades 3 to 5. When including social skills in the model, only social skills and externalizing behavioral problems formed the mutualism from Grades 3 to 5; language only predicted behavioral problems and social skills in the early elementary stage (Grades 1-3). These results suggest that language and behavioral management early on are important investing skills for the development of language, behavior skills, and social skills. With development, social skills may become more important than general language skills to manage problem behaviors. These findings indicated that interventions targeting behavioral problems may need to adapt their focus as children develop: fostering general language abilities early on but shifting to building social skills in later grades.

This study investigated the prevalence, and the developmental, behavior and emotional outcomes of 675 preschoolers with ASD with or without a history of regression, who participated in the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). The SEED project is a cross-sectional case-control study that collected data between 2007 and 2011. Children's history of regression, adaptive skills, and behavior problems were assessed using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Second Edition (Vineland-2), and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), respectively; and children's developmental levels were assessed using the Mullen Scales of Learning (MSEL). Findings from this study indicated that 26% of children experienced social and language regression, and of those with regression, 76% had regained lost skills upon completion of the study. Compared to children without a history of regression, children with social regression demonstrated increased internalizing problems and decreased fine motor skills, and children with language regression demonstrated poorer language skills. Also, children with language and social regression displayed poorer adaptive communication skills than children without regression. Children who experienced regression in one area of development demonstrated better outcomes than those who experience regression in multiple areas. To conclude, children with regression are at risk for poorer outcomes during their preschool years.

This study examined the intersecting experiences of perceived racial discrimination, poverty-related stress (PRS), and civic efficacy with psychological functioning in preadolescents. The sample consisted of 129 low-income, racially and ethnically diverse preadolescents. Hierarchical linear regression analyses found that perceived racial discrimination and PRS were associated with greater psychological problems, as reported by parents and youth. High levels of both perceived racial discrimination and PRS together resulted in even higher psychological problems, as reported by parents. Lastly, civic efficacy significantly moderated the relationship, where higher civic efficacy in the presence of both discrimination and PRS was associated with fewer psychological problems. In conclusion, these findings suggest that considering both stressors as intersecting rather than additive stress may better explain the mental health disparities among low-income and Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) youth. Additionally, empowering resources, such as civic efficacy, may promote positive development.

Increased reactivity to daily stressors is associated with mental health difficulties, which are common in autistic individuals. We investigated affective reactivity to daily-life stress, cognitive emotion regulation, and their link with co-occurring mental health symptoms in adolescents and young adults with autism. A 6-day ecological momentary assessment protocol was used to assess perceived daily-life stress (event-related, activity-related, and social stress) as well as negative affects in autistic (n = 39, age = 18.4) and non-autistic (n = 55, age = 18.1) participants. Co-occurring mental health difficulties, social functioning, and cognitive emotion regulation were assessed with questionnaires and clinical evaluations. Youth with autism showed higher levels of perceived stress related to their daily social context and activities, as well as an increased affective reactivity to activity-related stressors compared with non-autistic youth. Moreover, they reported using less adaptive and more non-adaptive emotion regulation, the latter increasing their affective response to daily stressors and possibly contributing to the severity of co-occurring mental health symptoms. Our findings demonstrate high perceived daily-life stress in autistic adolescents and young adults. To minimize the negative effects of stress and the development of mental health symptoms, interventions could focus on effective stress management and strategies that autistic young people use to manage their emotions.

This study aimed to describe the behavioral profile of individuals with SYNGAP1-ID. Parents/carers of 30 individuals aged 3-18 years old with a diagnosis of SYNGAP1-ID and 21 typically developing individuals completed the Vineland-3 Adaptive Behavior Scale and the Child Behavior Checklist. We found that those with SYNGAP1-ID showed fewer adaptive behaviors and higher levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors across almost all domains compared to typically developing controls. There was some evidence that these differences were greatest in older children, and more apparent in those with co-occurring epilepsy. This characterization of the phenotype of SYNGAP1-ID significantly aids our understanding of the behavioral profile of this population and is a step towards the development of tailored interventions.

This was an exploratory cross-sectional study comparing 45 children with ASD to 24 typically developing drug-naïve controls, group-matched on age, sex, and body mass index. Objective data was obtained using the following: an ambulatory circadian monitoring device; saliva samples to determine dim light melatonin onset (DLMO): and three parent-completed measures: the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R); and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ28). The CBCL and RBS-R scales showed the highest scores amongst poor sleepers with ASD. Sleep fragmentation was associated with somatic complaints and self-injury, leading to a higher impact on family life. Sleep onset difficulties were associated with withdrawal, anxiety, and depression. Those with phase advanced DLMO had lower scores for "somatic complaints"; "anxious/depressed" state; and "social problems", suggesting that this phenomenon has a protective role.

Objective: This article will review the use of the CBCL to diagnose youth with psychopathological disorders focusing on: ADHD, Mood Disorders, Autism Spectrum disorders, and Disruptive Disorders. Method: Using a narrative review approach, we investigate the usefulness of the CBCL as a screening tool to detect childhood onset psychopathology across different diagnostic syndromes. Results: The available literature supports the use of the CBCL for ADHD screening and as a measure of ADHD severity. While some studies support a specific profile linked with childhood bipolar disorder, replication studies for this profile found mixed results. The CBCL was also found to be useful in screening for patients presenting with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Conduct Disorder, and Childhood Bipolar Disorder all of which presents with more severely impaired scores. Conclusion: The CBCL holds promise as a screening tool for childhood psychopathology.

Objective: To compare neurofunctional responses in emotional and attentional networks of psychostimulant-free ADHD youth with and without familial risk for bipolar I disorder (BD). Methods: ADHD youth with (high-risk, HR, n = 48) and without (low-risk, LR, n = 50) a first-degree relative with BD and healthy controls (n = 46) underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing a continuous performance task with emotional distracters. Region-of-interest analyses were performed for bilateral amygdala (AMY), ventrolateral (VLPFC) and dorsolateral (DLPFC) prefrontal cortex, and anterior (ACC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Results: Compared with HC, HR, but not LR, exhibited predominantly left-lateralized AMY, VLPFC, DLPFC, PCC, and rostral ACC hyperactivation to emotional distractors, whereas LR exhibited right VLPFC and bilateral dorsal ACC hypoactivation to attentional targets. Regional responses correlated with emotional and attention symptoms. Conclusion: Aberrant neurofunctional responses during emotional and attentional processing differentiate ADHD youth with and without a family history of BD and correlate with relevant symptoms ratings.

Objective: We examined the relative contribution of parental bipolar disorder (BPD) and psychiatric comorbidities (disruptive behavior disorders [DBD] and anxiety disorders) in predicting psychiatric symptoms and disorders in 2-5-year-old offspring. Methods: Participants were 60 families with a parent with BPD and 78 offspring and 70 comparison families in which neither parent had a mood disorder and 91 offspring. Parent and offspring diagnoses and symptoms were assessed using standardized diagnostic interviews and measures, with offspring assessors masked to parental diagnoses. Results: Offspring of parents with BPD had significant elevations in behavioral, mood and anxiety disorders and symptoms. Both parental BPD and DBD contributed to elevations in child disruptive behavioral symptoms, whereas child anxiety symptoms were more strongly predicted by comorbid parental anxiety. Parental BPD was a stronger predictor than comorbid DBD of child DBDs. Conclusion: Some of the elevated risk for disorders in preschoolers is accounted for by parental comorbidity.

Objective: To identify childhood psychopathological features that predict the onset of adolescent Bipolar (BD) versus Unipolar Major Depressive Disorder (UD) during adolescence. Method: We analyzed clinical data from 495 juveniles diagnosed with DSM-5 UD (n = 359), and BD (n = 136), using bivariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression model. Results: BD subjects exhibited earlier onset of any psychiatric feature compared to UD. Antecedents associated with later BD were: oppositional defiant > specific phobias > ADHD > obsessive compulsive (OCD). Antecedents selectively associated with later UD were: social anxiety and separation anxiety. Factors significantly and independently associated with later BD diagnosis were: [a] emotional dysregulation at onset of the mood disorder; [b] first depressive episode with mixed features; [c] antecedent ADHD; [d] antecedent OCD, and [e] antecedent oppositional-defiance. Conclusion: Identifying developmental differences in BD and UD symptoms can aid clinicians in early identification and treatment planning for bipolar disorder in youth.

Research findings on the prevalence and characteristics of behavioral problems of children with hearing loss (HL) are not consistent. The aim of this study was to compare the behavioral problems of children with HL, with typical development (TD) and with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); and to determine the factors affecting behavioral problems in the HL group. Data were collected by using two scales based on the reports of 273 teachers of children with TD, HL and ASD: Child Behavior Checklist-Teacher Report Form (CBCL-TRF) and Social Skills Rating System-Problem Behaviors (SSRS-PB). ANOVA results showed that there was no difference between children with HL and TD, children with ASD had more behavioral problems than the two groups. In the HL group, children using hearing aids exhibited more behavioral problems than children with cochlear implants. Children who had additional problems displayed more behavioral problems than those who had not. Age at onset of hearing aid use and age at implantation were found to be significant predictors of behavioral problems. The findings point to the role of early intervention in preventing behavioral problems in children with HL.

This study examines the reliability of parental concern (PC) as an indicator for mental disorders in preschool-aged children in a clinical setting, aiming to establish sensitivity and specificity, evaluate PC's predictive value for specific diagnoses, and explore the influence of child age on predictions. The sample comprises 574 children referred to child psychiatry services (mean age 47 months, 73% boys). Analyses of sensitivity and specificity for five distinct PC were conducted, while logistic regressions explored the predictive value of PC for corresponding diagnoses, accounting for child age. Language-related concerns emerged as the most frequent and accurate. Sensitivity ranged from 7% to 72%, while specificity ranged from 57% to 97%. PC demonstrated predictive validity for their corresponding diagnoses, except for motor disorders. Child age did not substantially influence these predictions. Findings suggest that systematically incorporating PC into the assessment process for preschool-aged children consulting in child psychiatry is warranted.

Children with a parent who suffers from depression are more likely to develop internalizing problems themselves. Moreover, poverty is an additional risk factor for child internalizing problems. According to models of intergenerational transmission of depression, various environmental mechanisms may account for this transmission. However, very few studies have included multiple mediators, as well as both parents in low-income samples. In this study of low-income families, we measured parental depressive symptoms, child internalizing problems, and examined three potential mediators: parent-child interaction quality, spouse's depressive symptoms, and coparenting conflict. Results indicated that the transmission of paternal depressive symptoms to child internalizing problems was entirely accounted for by these three mediators. The transmission of maternal depressive symptoms to child internalizing problems was mediated partially by coparenting conflict, but this link remained largely direct. These results underscore the need to consider both parents and coparenting conflict in clinical interventions targeting internalizing problems among preschoolers.

Cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve social and cognitive skills of children with behavioral disorders and their parents may extend beyond Western culture and provide effective intervention methods for parents in Arab society. The benefits of this intervention method on Arab parents of preschool children with behavioral disorders must be investigated. The current study examined the efficacy of acquiring social and cognitive skills in a tailored intervention designed for Arab parents of preschool children with behavioral disorders. The sample included 48 Arab parents, each with a child aged 4-5 with behavioral disorders, attending pre-schools in Israel. Parents completed the Bloomquist questionnaire and self-reported their own and their child's behaviors across several domains. Parents were then randomized to either the experimental treatment group or a control group, consisting of the cognitive-behavioral intervention and an art therapy intervention, respectively. The cognitive-behavioral intervention focused on fostering social and cognitive skills within the parentchild dyad. This intervention demonstrated improvements in several behavioral domains. This suggests the unique efficacy of the cognitive-behavioral intervention, which is consistent with prior studies. The current study represents the first systematic examination of an intervention for parents of preschool children with behavioral disorders within Arab society.

This study examined longitudinal associations between parental psychological distress (stress and depression) when the child was 2 to 4 years and a child's emotional and behavioural problems at ages 3 to 4, and social functioning (loneliness and social competence) at age 11 in very preterm born children. The participants were Finnish families of 172 very preterm infants (gestational age < 32 weeks and/or birth weight [less than or equal to] 1500 g). In girls, higher levels of maternal depression were associated with higher levels of social and emotional loneliness. Furthermore, higher levels of maternal stress and children's externalizing problems were associated with lower levels of experienced empathy. In boys, higher levels of paternal depression were associated with lower levels of social loneliness and impulsive behaviour. In conclusion, early parental psychological distress is associated with early socioemotional development and the later experienced social functioning in former very preterm infants. The sex of the child moderates these associations.

Understanding executive functions (EFs) development is of high value to global developmental science. Recent calls for a more inclusive and equitable developmental science argue that tasks and questionnaires that are developed using only a subset of the population are not likely to be appropriate for EFs measurement in global contexts unless explicitly tested. Here, we examined a task commonly used to assess EFs in Western populations in a non-Western sample of Jordanian children. We used the Hearts and Flowers (HF) task to examine (a) its value for assessing EFs development in Jordanian children, and (b) whether task performance was associated with socioeconomic variables and parent report of academic achievement, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors measured with the Arabic Child Behavior Checklist. We report data from N = 93 5.5-8.5 year-old Jordanian children. We found the task to be valuable for distinguishing performance among EFs constructs (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility) in this cohort. However, there were no age differences in EFs performance, nor any EFs-specific relationship to any of the parent-report measures of EFs-related constructs. Instead, EFs were related to paternal education and location of residence (Jordanian governorate). We discuss these findings in the context of the expansion of developmental science into global contexts and call for special consideration of measurement and generalizability biases in investigations with human subjects.

This study examined whether adolescent students' externalizing behavior and prosocial behavior affects their academic achievement (i.e., school grades and standardized test scores) in two major academic domains (i.e., mathematics and German) over and above well-established determinants of school achievement (i.e., prior achievement, intelligence, and domain-specific self-concepts). The study draws on longitudinal data from two independent samples of students (A/B) who were each followed from Grade 7 to Grade 9 (N[subscript A/B] = 1143/1345). In each academic domain, structural equation models showed that externalizing behavior negatively predicted and prosocial behavior positively predicted academic achievement. When both behaviors were included simultaneously, prosocial behavior particularly predicted school grades in both domains, whereas externalizing behavior particularly predicted test scores in mathematics. Further analyses did not suggest differences between boys and girls in the effects of social behavior on academic achievement. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.

Brain age, a measure of biological aging in the brain, has been linked to psychiatric illness, principally in adult populations. Components of socioeconomic status (SES) associate with differences in brain structure and psychiatric risk across the lifespan. This study aimed to investigate the influence of SES on brain aging in childhood and adolescence, a period of rapid neurodevelopment and peak onset for many psychiatric disorders. We reanalyzed data from the Healthy Brain Network to examine the influence of SES components (occupational prestige, public assistance enrollment, parent education, and household income-to-needs ratio [INR]) on relative brain age (RBA). Analyses included 470 youth (5-17 years; 61.3% men), self-identifying as White (55%), African American (15%), Hispanic (9%), or multiracial (17.2%). Household income was 3.95 ± 2.33 (mean ± SD) times the federal poverty threshold. RBA quantified differences between chronological age and brain age using covariation patterns of morphological features and total volumes. We also examined associations between RBA and psychiatric symptoms (Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL]). Models covaried for sex, scan location, and parent psychiatric diagnoses. In a linear regression, lower RBA is associated with lower parent occupational prestige (p = 0.01), lower public assistance enrollment (p = 0.03), and more parent psychiatric diagnoses (p = 0.01), but not parent education or INR. Lower parent occupational prestige (p = 0.02) and lower RBA (p = 0.04) are associated with higher CBCL anxious/depressed scores. Our findings underscore the importance of including SES components in developmental brain research. Delayed brain aging may represent a potential biological pathway from SES to psychiatric risk.

This study assessed the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the Preschool Anxiety Scale--Revised (PAS-R), a parent-reported measure of their preschool child's anxiety symptoms. The participants were mothers of 279 Italian preschoolers (age 2-7 years, M = 4.5 years). According to information criteria derived from a confirmatory factor analysis, the four originally identified factors (generalized anxiety, social anxiety, separation anxiety, specific fears) provided the best fit to the data. Reliability was excellent for the total score and acceptable for the subscales. PAS-R total score showed moderate correlation with internalizing subscales of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and of the Child Behavior Checklist and weak correlation with the externalizing subscale of the SDQ, demonstrating convergent and concurrent validity, respectively. Test-retest reliability of the PAS-R was good after 1 month. The results suggest good psychometric properties of the Italian PAS-R, although its factor structure needs further investigation with different samples.

Latent growth curve modeling was used to investigate the longitudinal link between attachment, effortful control (EC), and maladaptive development during middle childhood. In a community sample, children (Time 1: n = 157; M[subscript age] = 10.91) and their mothers were examined three times over a two-year period. Attachment was operationalized at a more strategic (self-reported trust in maternal support) and more automatic level (secure base script knowledge). Mothers reported about children's EC and maladjustment. Secure attachment was associated with higher EC, but EC development was only linked with baseline self-reported trust. Also, EC indirectly linked baseline self-reported trust with change in externalizing and internalizing problems over time. In addition, self-reported trust was indirectly linked with change in externalizing problems over time through EC development. EC, and, less robustly, EC development were linked with attachment and change in emotional and behavioral problems.

Background: Limited data exist on problematic sexual behaviour (PSB) in youth with developmental disabilities in South Korea. Method: Sixty-one parents of children with intellectual disabilities or autism spectrum disorder (aged 13-30) reported children's PSB and emotional, behavioural, cognitive, and interpersonal factors. The frequency of PSB in children with developmental disabilities was verified, and various factors' effects on PSB were examined through multiple linear regression analysis. Results: There were no significant differences in PSB levels between children based on sex and age group. The externalising tendency and a history of family conflict predicted higher PSB. In contrast, protective factors had no significant predictive effects. Conclusions: PSB may vary depending on emotional and interpersonal factors, as well as cognitive deficits. Our findings emphasise the importance of interventions for PSB that consider both intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects.

Parents, particularly mothers, of autistic children may be especially vulnerable to the negative effects of COVID-19. The current longitudinal study examined changes in psychological distress (anxiety, depression, stress) and marital functioning of mothers and fathers of autistic children across three time points between April and October 2020, and the extent to which pre-COVID factors predicted changes in these outcomes. Participants were 94 mothers and 58 fathers of autistic children drawn from a larger longitudinal study about family relationships and autistic children's mental health that began prior to the pandemic. Results indicated that mothers reported higher levels of psychological distress compared to fathers in July and October 2020. Although, on average, levels of psychological distress and marital functioning did not significantly change for mothers and fathers, pre-pandemic child functioning and marital satisfaction predicted individual differences in change in marital satisfaction during the pandemic for mothers. Implications of the findings are discussed.

The authors examined task-based (i.e., executive function), surveyed (i.e., effortful control), and physiological (i.e., resting cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]) measures of child and maternal regulation as distinct moderators of longitudinal bidirectional links between child externalizing (EXT) behaviors and harsh parenting (HP) from 6 to 9 years. The sample size was 299 (50.9% female; 1% Asian, 4% multiple races; 14% Black; 78% White), and participants were recruited in the United States (a rural college town in Virginia and a midsized city in North Carolina). Higher child EXT at 6 years predicted higher HP at 7-8 years, which predicted higher EXT at 9 years. Also, this path was moderated by 6-year child effortful control, 6-year resting RSA, and 9-year executive function. In contrast, there was no moderating effect of any measure of maternal regulation. Findings suggest it is important to consider child self-regulation when examining bidirectionality in parent and child effects for HP and child EXT.

This study examined connections between parental quality of life (QoL) and features of children (autism severity, cognitive ability, behavioral profile, and sociodemographic factors). Parents of 97 children attending an autism-specific preschool completed the Quality of Life in Autism, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales and Child Behavior Checklist. The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule and Mullen Scales of Early Learning were also administered. Reduced restrictive/repetitive behavior and higher socialization and play/leisure scores were associated with better parental QoL. Better behavioral regulation and attention also predicted better QoL, as did stronger communication and reduced internalising behaviours. Findings indicate that a child's level of autism specific traits, adaptive functioning and behavioral profile has greater impact on parental QoL than cognitive level.

Physical abuse is one subtype of child abuse and it has been a worldwide public health issue for its detrimental effects on child development, profiles, predictors, and its relation with behavior problems need further exploration, particularly in Chinese children. This study attempts to explore profiles and predictors of physical abuse and to examine differences in behavior problems in profiles of physical abuse. A total of 900 caregivers whose children aged 4 to 6 years were recruited in which the data were collected with caregiver-reported questionnaires, and latent profile analysis was used to perform data analysis. "Research Findings": Children were divided into three profiles: profiles of extremely low levels of physical abuse, low levels of physical abuse, and moderate levels of physical abuse; child gender and family income predicted classifications of profiles. Internalizing and externalizing problems were different based on profiles, specifically, externalizing problems in the profile of moderate levels of physical abuse were significantly higher than any other profile; internalizing problems in the profile of low levels of physical abuse were significantly higher than the profile of extremely low levels of physical abuse. "Practice or Policy": Preventions for physical abuse should take individual differences, such as children's gender, into consideration.

Parenting style plays an important role in children's externalizing behaviors. Differences in physiological regulation among children may lead to variations in whether or to what extent parenting style influences them. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of parenting styles on young children's development of externalizing behaviors and to consider the moderating role of children's physiological regulation (resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia [resting RSA]). Participants included 119 Chinese parent-child dyads (55 girls, T1 M[subscript age] = 4.62 years, SD[subscript age] = 0.27 years; T2 M[subscript age] = 5.73 years, SD[subscript age] = 0.29 years). At T1, parents reported their parenting styles and children's externalizing behaviors; at T2, children's externalizing behaviors were measured again by parental reports, and children's resting RSA was measured. Authoritarian parenting predicted children's development of externalizing behaviors from T1 to T2, and this effect was moderated by children's resting RSA. For children with low resting RSA, authoritarian parenting positively predicted their development of externalizing behaviors, but no significant relation was found among children with high resting RSA. Permissive parenting was associated with children's externalizing behaviors T1 but not with the development of externalizing behaviors from T1 to T2. The present study demonstrates the crucial role of resting RSA in early childhood and supports the diathesis-stress model by revealing that children with poor physiological regulation are vulnerable to authoritarian parenting and thus develop high externalizing behaviors.

The mediators of real-world executive functions in autism during the transition into adulthood are mainly unknown. This study aimed to identify the mediators for the behavioral and cognitive domains of real-world executive functions in late adolescent and young adult autistic populations. We followed up 289 autistic children (aged 11.6 ± 3.8, male 82.2%) and 203 non-autistic controls (10.7 ± 2.9, 66.5%) to their ages of 16.9 ± 4.7 and 15.8 ± 3.9, respectively. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, comprising two global scales (Behavioral Regulation Index and the Metacognitive Index), was used to assess real-world executive functions at Time 2. Mediators of behavior regulation and metacognition were explored among a wide range of clinical correlates and parental bonding. We found that the autistic group had lower executive functions than the non-autistic group with lower behavior regulation and metacognition subscores. Several childhood factors were significant mediators. Multiple mediation analyses revealed that childhood inattention remained a significant mediator for both behavior regulation and metacognition in late adolescence, and peer problems were the specific mediators of metacognition. Our findings suggest several childhood factors may mediate real-world executive functions during late adolescence. Treating common mediators such as inattention may improve real-world executive functions in autistic individuals during adulthood.

This study investigated the utility of using an omnibus measure of child functioning, the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), to screen for symptoms of PTSD. Although measures to assess trauma symptoms exist, they are often not linguistically and culturally valid for many school-age populations. Data from parents of Syrian refugee youth (ages 10-18 years, M = 13.54, SD = 2.27, n = 70) who recently resettled in the U.S. were analyzed, as their refugee status implies they likely have experienced traumatic events during the Syrian War. A mixed-method design was employed, comparing qualitative data from parent focus groups to quantitative responses on the CBCL. Results provide preliminary support for use of CBCL items as a culturally-responsive screening tool for screening symptoms of PTSD in school-aged children, though it should not replace formalized assessment.

Little is known about the impact of teachers' questions on child bilingual's heritage language reading process and outcomes. This study examined the role of adults' questions in English-Mandarin bilingual preschoolers' Mandarin word learning, story comprehension, and reading engagement. Ninety-nine 4- to 5-year-old preschoolers in Singapore were assigned to one of the three reading conditions: (a) reading with contextualized questions (e.g., labelling), (b) reading with decontextualized questions (e.g., inference), and (c) reading without questions. The experimenters read three storybooks to the children three times over 2 weeks. Children's general Mandarin proficiency was tested before the intervention, and their target words knowledge and story comprehension were tested before and after the intervention. Children's reading engagement in each reading was assessed with a modified Child Behavior Rating Scale. The results demonstrate that not all aspects of Mandarin performance and reading engagement have benefitted from the experimenter's questions. Contextualized questions were found to significantly enhance children's word meaning explanation and story retelling. Contextualized and decontextualized questions lead to higher increase in social-cognitive engagement but resulted in faster decrease in behavioral and affective engagement over repetitive readings. Furthermore, children's initial Mandarin proficiency influences their reading process and outcomes. Generally, the better their Mandarin vocabulary knowledge was, the more they could enjoy and benefit from the reading, whether they were asked questions or not.

Problems with executive function (EF) are considered a hallmark of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, little is known about the developmental pathway of everyday EF in these two groups, and whether the two groups follow a similar or different developmental course. In this longitudinal study, children and adolescents with ADHD (n = 84, M[subscript age] = 11.6, SD = 2.0), ASD (n = 38, M[subscript age] = 12.0, SD = 2.3), and typically developing children (TDC; n = 50, M[subscript age] = 11.6, SD = 2.0) were clinically diagnosed and assessed with parent-ratings of everyday EF at baseline and at two-year follow-up (97% retention). Results showed that both individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD displayed elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC at baseline (Hedges g = 1.99 to 2.99). Over the two-year period, everyday EF improved in individuals with ADHD relative to the TDC, whereas individuals with ASD displayed no improvement relative to the TDC. At two-year follow-up, individuals with ADHD and individuals with ASD continued to display elevated levels of everyday EF problems relative to the TDC (Hedges g = 1.61 to 3.19).

The Early Learner Curriculum and Achievement Record (ELCAR, Greer et al., 2020) is a criterion-referenced curriculum and assessment of children's development of language and social repertoires from the earliest foundational observing responses to advanced verbal repertoires. The developmental cusps or stages identified in the ELCAR have been validated and replicated through rigorous single-subject studies, but the assessment's convergent and divergent validity with traditional psychometric measures of similar and dissimilar constructs have not been investigated. In the present study, we compared one component of the ELCAR, the Verbal Behavior Development Assessment--Revised (VBDA-R), to four traditional psychometric measures as well as observed joint attention between 42 mother-child dyads within a free play setting. The preschoolers attended a full day applied behavior analysis (ABA) school that served children with autism spectrum and related disorders. The VBDA-R demonstrated convergent validity with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale--3 (Vineland-3) Teacher Rating Form Communication domain, Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule--2 (ADOS-2) module, and observed child-initiated joint attention (IJA). It demonstrated divergent validity with the Sensory Experience Questionnaire (SEQ), Child Behavior Checklist externalizing scale (CBCL/1.5-5), and child response to mother-initiated joint attention (RJA).

To explore associations between autism traits and family functioning over time, we studied longitudinal data of a mixed group of 168 clinically referred autistic and non-autistic children. Cross-lagged models showed a significant association between fewer autism traits at the diagnostic assessment and better family functioning 1 year later for the whole group, independently of children's internalizing or externalizing behavior. When splitting the group into autistic children (58%) and non-autistic children (42%) based on an autism diagnosis, this association was only significant in the subgroup of non-autistic children with autism traits. We hypothesized that the needs of families experiencing difficulty understanding and adjusting to their children with autism traits, but no clinical autism diagnosis, might be unmet without the training or support facilities offered to families with autistic children. Although further research is needed to explore this association, clinicians may also consider supporting families of non-autistic children with autism traits to prevent family functioning problems. Because high autism trait levels in non-autistic children may be of a different origin than autism, for example, other neurodevelopmental or mental health problems, family training or support should be tailored to the child's underlying difficulties.

Sleep problems are common in autistic children and adversely impact daytime functioning. Knowledge of predictive factors could help with treatment and prevention of these problems. This study aimed to determine predictors of sleep problems among young autistic children. Study cohorts consisted of autistic children aged 2-5 years who did not have sleep problems at a first visit and had sleep measure data available at a subsequent visit. Sleep problems for five study cohorts were defined by different methods: Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire with two cutoff scores (41 and 48; cohort n = 101 and 204, respectively), Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire--autism derived cutoff score (35; n = 188), and parent- (n = 205) or clinician- (n = 252) report. Separate predictive models of sleep problems were developed in each cohort using multivariable logistic regression with final model predictors determined by backward elimination selection. Model performance was evaluated. Two of the five models had both adequate discrimination and calibration performance predicting (1) Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire score [greater than or equal to] 48 and (2) Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire--autism score [greater than or equal to] 35. In both models, self-injurious behavior, sensory issues, dental problems, and lower primary caregiver education level were significant risk factors of future sleep problems. These predictors may be useful in helping clinicians provide prevention strategies or early intervention for children who are at a higher risk of developing sleep problems.

Parents of autistic children experience more parenting stress and are at increased risk for poor mental and physical health compared with parents of neurotypical children; however, not all parents are distressed. The present study used a person-centered analytic approach to identify profiles of the parenting experience in a sample of 183 mothers and fathers of an autistic child (5-12 years old) and to examine associations between profile membership and child outcomes. Results indicated three profiles for mothers: "Adaptive" (41.1%; high authoritative parenting, lowest stress, and highest competence), "Average" (42.1%; sample average of all parenting indicators), and "Distressed" (16.8%; high stress, low competence, maladaptive parenting strategies). Fathers were classified into four profiles: "Adaptive" (33.3%), "Average" (37.7%), "Distressed"--"Permissive" (15.3%; high stress, low competence, permissive parenting strategies), and "Distressed"--"Authoritarian" (13.6%; some stress, lowest competence, authoritarian parenting strategies). The profiles differed on child internalizing and externalizing symptoms and autism symptom severity. Comparative analysis also revealed that children did better when at least one parent was included in the "Adaptive" group. Implications of these findings are discussed and include fostering empowering messages to parents as well as providing useful new insight in the context of family-focused interventions.

The goal of this prospective longitudinal study was to explore whether co-occurrent internalizing difficulties and aggression in early childhood convey increased risk for later mental health problems in middle childhood. Participants were mothers from the "Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study" (MoBa), who provided assessments of child internalizing difficulties and aggression at ages 3 years (n = 54,644; 26,750 girls) and 5 years (n = 38,177; 18,794 girls), as measures of child depressive, anxiety, conduct-related, and oppositional defiant (OD) symptoms at age 8 years. Using latent profile analyses (LPA) of internalizing difficulties and aggression, four profiles were identified: low-symptom/normative; primarily internalizing; primarily aggressive; and co-occurrent. Among the other results, the co-occurrent group exhibited the highest levels of depressive, anxiety, and oppositional defiant symptoms at 8 years. Most children (78%) remained stable in their profile between ages 3 and 5 years. Among the transition patterns that emerged, transitions were observed both from the normative to a risk profile and vice versa. Children who remained stable within the co-occurrent profile or who transitioned from the co-occurrent profile to one of the other two risk profiles also exhibited more depressive, anxiety, and OD symptoms at 8 years of age, when compared with children who transitioned from the co-occurrent to the normative profile. The heterogeneity between early manifestation of internalizing difficulties and aggression, and specific type of later mental health symptoms not only supports a shared etiology between internalizing and externalizing difficulties but also points toward the need for person-centered monitoring in early childhood with further implications for early identification of difficulties and preventive measures.

Disruptive behavior disorders in childhood are increasingly pervasive and associated with numerous, negative long-term outcomes. The current study examined whether adding a brief, home-visitation intervention to an existing, multi-component (child and teacher) intervention, would improve social-emotional and behavioral outcomes for young children with challenging behavior in home and school settings who required intensive support. A total of 379 teacher-parent-student triads were screened for elevated levels of behavioral risk in school and home settings and then randomly assigned to school only intervention (i.e., teacher and student components), home only intervention (i.e., parent), both combined, or business-as-usual control conditions. We examined baseline and posttest outcomes across prosocial behavior, problem behavior, and academic domains. The results demonstrated substantial support for the teacher and child-focused condition and combined conditions, and modest support for the parent-focused condition. The study advances the literature by increasing the knowledge base related to these interventions implemented alone and in combination.

Early elementary students on the autism spectrum are at risk for poor quality student-teacher relationships (STRs), a key contributor to student outcomes. However, these students' own appraisals of their STRs are nearly absent from the literature. This study examined children's perspectives of STRs and agreement with teacher-reported STRs for a sample of young autistic students (N = 136; 5-9 years). Although a majority of students responded affirmatively to items reflecting positive perceptions of STRs (e.g., 80.7% reported liking their teacher, 75.0% reported being liked by their teacher), results also revealed that some students perceived negative STR experiences (e.g., 14.7% reported that they get angry with their teacher, 17.6% reported that they get in trouble a lot). Student and teachers' scores were not significantly correlated, suggesting that students and teachers may have unique perspectives on specific aspects of their relationship.

Mathematics difficulties (MD) affect about 20% of the students in German schools. Almost half of them also exhibit emotional and behavioral difficulties (EBD). While a growing number of mathematics interventions target children with MD separately, there is a lack of evidence for the effectiveness of these interventions for children with combined MD and EBD. This study aims to investigate the differential effects of an evidence-based mathematics intervention on children with and without EBD. This single-case study examined 11 children with internalizing and externalizing EBDs from grades 3 and 4 using a staggered AB-Design. A computer-based mathematics intervention was provided for 5 weeks, during which the mathematical performance of the students was measured using a learning progress assessment in A- and B-phases. Data were analyzed using (a) overlap indices, (b) piecewise linear regression (PLM) models for each student, and (c) a multilevel PLM across all children. The results suggest different effectiveness for children with and without EBD, indicating a small direct influence of the severity of the EBD. Thus, the effectiveness of mathematics interventions might not be generalizable for children with combined EBD and MD. Further research is necessary to better understand the differential effectiveness of mathematics interventions for these children.

The "Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5-5" (CBCL/1½-5) has been widely used by researchers and clinicians in the field of special education and psychology. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the CBCL/1½-5 with a sample of preschool children from low-income families using the Rasch model. Participants included 244 children enrolled in a Head Start program. Findings suggested that both the Internalizing and Externalizing subscales are unidimensional and demonstrated local independence successfully, after misfit items were removed to fit the Rasch model. Both subscales operated well with high item reliability and low to medium person reliability, indicating that both subscales have stable item difficulty orders from sample to sample but weaker capacity to distinguish children with mild problem behaviors from those with more severe problems. Differential item functioning was found for a few items across child gender. Considering the length of the item sets, it is appropriate to use the subscale scores to compare the differences in problem behaviors between boys and girls. Overall, the CBCL/1½-5 has adequate psychometric properties for detecting problem behaviors in preschool children from low-income families. Implications were discussed.

This study is a secondary data analysis that extends knowledge about the effects of the early childhood Family Check-Up (FCU) intervention to trajectories of general psychopathology problems (p factor) across early and middle childhood, and effects on adolescent psychopathology and polydrug use. The Early Steps Multisite study (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT00538252) is a randomized controlled trial of the FCU and consists of a large, racially and ethnically diverse sample of children who grew up in low-income households in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Eugene, Oregon; and Charlottesville, Virginia (n = 731; 49% female; 27.6% African American, 46.7% European American, 13.3% Hispanic/Latinx). To represent a comorbid presentation of internalizing and externalizing problems, we fit a bifactor model that included a general psychopathology (p) factor at eight ages in early childhood (ages 2-4), middle childhood (ages 7.5-10.5), and adolescence (age 14). Latent growth curve modeling was conducted to examine trajectories of the p factor across ages within the developmental periods of early and middle childhood. The effects of FCU on the reductions in growth in the childhood p factor had cascading effects on adolescent p factor (i.e., within-domain effect) and polydrug use (i.e., across-domain effect). Findings underscore the utility of the early FCU in preventing a host of maladaptive adolescent outcomes across diverse settings and populations.

Emerging research suggests that adolescents at high-achieving schools (HAS) in Western societies are at elevated risk for problem behaviours. This cross-sectional study explored whether adolescents attending HAS in a non-Western setting show similar risk patterns and if contextual (school-, family-, and peer-based) factors typically associated with the excessive pressures to achieve predict these problems. Participants were 237 adolescents (14-18 years old), and one of their parents, who were recruited from high-achieving private schools in Hong Kong. The parent-child dyads completed questionnaires on youth internalizing and externalizing problems and perceived stressors. Multiple linear regressions were conducted to test whether academic demands, parent-related stressors, and social status among peers were associated with youth problem behaviours, after controlling for age and gender. The study found that nearly half of the female adolescents and over a third of the males met borderline-clinical levels ([greater than or equal to] 86%ile) of internalizing problems; moreover, more females than males met clinical criteria ([greater than or equal to] 98%ile) for self-reported externalizing problems and parent-reported internalizing problems. Academic demands, parent-related stressors, and social status among peers predicted youth-reported internalizing problems; and the latter two factors contributed parent-reported internalizing problems. However, only parent-related stressors significantly predicted youth- and parent-reported externalizing problems. The findings provide preliminary indication that HAS adolescents from Hong Kong may be an "at risk" group, highlighting the need for increased awareness and targeted interventions.

There has been concern about the potential sequelae of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in children. This study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development[superscript SM] (ABCD) study to investigate associations between mTBI and behavior and sleep in school-aged children. Generalized additive mixed models were run to examine the association between TBI and parent-reported Child Behavior Checklist and Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children scores. mTBI with or without loss of consciousness (LOC) in 9- and 10-year old children was associated with 1) higher internalizing, externalizing and total problems and 2) greater sleep disturbance scores on the CBCL. The study also demonstrated a higher incidence of mTBI with and without LOC in boys compared to girls. This study shows a statistically significant but modest association between mTBI and behavioral and sleep changes, suggesting that in a non-clinical, sociodemographically diverse community sample of school-aged children mTBI does not result in clinically significant behavioral or psychological sequelae.

Mind-mindedness is associated with positive developmental outcomes. However, much of the literature uses mostly White, middle to high socioeconomic status (SES) samples despite evidence that the benefits of mind-mindedness may vary based on degree of social risk. Additionally, few studies have examined relations between mind-mindedness and language development. The current study investigates whether mind-mindedness predicts children's language development and behavioral functioning and if family history of childhood maltreatment moderates the relation of mind-mindedness to these outcomes. Participants were 98 mothers (49.0% Black, 24.5% White, 13.3% Latina, 7.2% multiracial; 81.6% low SES per Hollingshead classifications) and their children (49 boys, 49 girls) from the Rochester, New York area recruited at Time 1 (M[subscript age] = 13.34 months) and followed up twice (M[subscript ages] = 27.51 [Time 2] and 39.31 months [Time 3]). Mother-child dyads participated in videotaped free play interactions at Times 1 and 2. Using transcripts of these interactions, we coded mind-mindedness at Times 1 and 2 and children's internal state language at Time 2. Mothers reported on children's behavioral functioning at Time 3. Findings revealed that Time 2 mind-mindedness predicted fewer Time 3 behavioral difficulties in children from maltreating families but did not predict behavioral difficulties in children from nonmaltreating families. Additionally, Time 1 mind-mindedness predicted children's Time 2 use of decontextualized internal state language. Findings highlight the importance of examining mind-mindedness in higher risk populations and how mind-mindedness can be leveraged as a protective factor to prevent future maladjustment in children at risk for adverse outcomes.

Though experiencing maltreatment (abuse or neglect) appears to be common in students with the special education label of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD), little research has been devoted to this topic by EBD educators. This paper uses archived file drawer data from 1992 that focuses on 149 students newly classified with EBD for whom a wide range of enrollment variables was collected, and who were subsequently followed up on an average of 8 years later to assess their educational outcomes. At enrollment, experiences of maltreatment were determined to have occurred in 57.7% of these participants. The group who experienced maltreatment was predicted at enrollment only by the family stress of having at least one natural parent with a history of psychiatric illness, although the concordance was not strong (52.3%). When the children who experienced maltreatment were next divided into two longitudinal groups according to educational outcomes (52.3% successful), the enrollment variables of the presence of anxiety and/or depressive disorder and younger age predicted the successful outcome group with good concordance (76.0%). Professional and programmatic implications for educators of students identified with EBD who have also experienced maltreatment are discussed, along with practical recommendations for serving this population.