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A series of experiments analyzed the kinetics and mechanisms of [(14)C]niclosamide degradation. The aerobic aquatic metabolism of [(14)C]niclosamide was studied in nonsterile river water/sediment mixtures. Test systems, maintained under aerobic conditions, were treated with niclosamide and incubated in the dark at 25.0 +/- 1.0 degrees C for 30 days. Half-lives of 4.9 and 5.4 days were calculated for the chlorosalicylic acid- and chloronitroaniline-labeled test systems, respectively. From 0 to 21 days after treatment (DAT), the only metabolism product observed in either test system was aminoniclosamide. At the final sampling interval, five peaks were resolved from the chlorosalicylic acid label, and three peaks were resolved from the chloronitroaniline label test substance. By 30 DAT, sediment-bound residues represented approximately 70% of the observed radioactivity. For the anaerobic aquatic metabolism of [(14)C]niclosamide, test systems were incubated under anaerobic conditions for 365 days. Half-lives of 0.65 day for the chlorosalicylic acid label and 2.79 days for the chloronitroaniline label were calculated. From 0 to 3 DAT, niclosamide was first transformed into aminoniclosamide. Aminoniclosamide is readily formed, as it was observed in the chlorosalicylic acid label 0 DAT sampling. Several minor metabolites were observed in the water and sediment extracts. None of these metabolites were formed to a significant amount until the parent niclosamide dissipated below the detection limit. Two of the byproducts from these metabolism studies are polar unknowns eluting at 3 and 5 min by HPLC, similar to the unknowns observed in aqueous photolysis studies.

The photolytic degradations of imidacloprid, carbofuran, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, pyridaben, propoxur, and esfenvalerate were independently compared in both moist (75% field moisture capacity at 0.33 bar) and air-dry microbially viable soils at 5 microg/g. All compounds were applied to sandy soil except for propoxur, which was applied to sandy loam soil. Diazinon was applied to both sandy soil and sandy loam soil. The samples were exposed for up to 360 h, depending on the half-life of the compound. Moisture and temperature were maintained through the use of a specially designed soil photolysis apparatus. Corresponding dark control studies were performed concurrently. With the exception of esfenvalerate, the other compounds exhibited significantly shorter half-lives in moist soils, attributed to the increased hydrolysis and microbial activity of the moist soil. The esfenvalerate metabolism was not first order due to limited mobility in the soil because of its very low water solubility. The overall half-life for esfenvalerate was 740 h, as the percent remaining did not drop below 60%. The imidacloprid half-life in irradiated moist soil was 1.8 times shorter than in air-dry soils. However, on dry soil the photodegradation showed poor first-order kinetics after 24 h of exposure. The metabolism of carbofuran and diazinon was highly dependent on soil moisture. Carbofuran exhibited 2.2 times longer half-lives when less moisture was available in the soil. Diazinon in moist sandy soil degraded rapidly, but slowed significantly in irradiated and dark control air-dry sandy soil. Diazinon photolysis on sandy loam soil was not first order, as it attained a constant concentration of 54.9%, attributed to decreased mobility in this soil. Chlorpyrifos photolysis was 30% shorter on moist sand than on air-dry sand. Pyridaben photolyzed rapidly throughout the first 72 h of irradiation but maintained 48% through 168 h. Propoxur metabolism in moist sandy loam soil was not first order and did not degrade below 50% after 360 h of exposure, but the overall half-life was still nearly half of that on irradiated air-dry soil. Three of the compounds showed differences in metabolism patterns during exposure on moist or air-dry soil. Typically, the moist soils produced a more linear decline than that seen in the dry soils, corresponding to the susceptibility of the particular chemical to hydrolysis and/or biodegradation. Four of the eight experiments had shorter half-lives in dark control moist soils than in irradiated dry soils.

The photodegradation of [(14)C]niclosamide was studied in sterile, pH 5, 7, and 9 buffered aqueous solutions under artificial sunlight at 25.0 +/- 1.0 degrees C. Photolysis in pH 5 buffer is 4.3 times faster than in pH 9 buffer and 1.5 times faster than in pH 7 buffer. In the dark controls, niclosamide degraded only in the pH 5 buffer. After 360 h of continuous irradiation in pH 9 buffer, the chromatographic pattern of the degradates was the same regardless of which ring contained the radiolabel. An HPLC method was developed that confirmed these degradates to be carbon dioxide and two- and four-carbon aliphatic acids formed by cleavage of both aromatic rings. Carbon dioxide was the major degradate, comprising approximately 40% of the initial radioactivity in the 360 h samples from both labels. The other degradates formed were oxalic acid, maleic acid, glyoxylic acid, and glyoxal. In addition, in the chloronitroaniline-labeled irradiated test solution, 2-chloro-4-nitroaniline was observed and identified after 48 h of irradiation but was not detected thereafter. No other aromatic compounds were isolated or observed in either labeled test system.

The problem of maintaining the moisture content of samples throughout the course of a soil photolysis study is addressed. The photolytic degradations of asulam, triclopyr, acifluorfen, and atrazine were independently compared in air-dried soils and in moist (75% field moisture capacity at 0.33 bar) soils maintained at initial conditions through the use of a specially designed soil photolysis apparatus. Each pesticide was applied at 5 microg/g. The exposure phase extended from 144 to 360 h, depending on the half-life of the compound. A dark control study, also using moist and air-dried soils, was performed concurrently at 25 degrees C. The results showed significant differences in half-life. The dissipations generally demonstrated a strong dependence on moisture. In most cases, photolytic degradation on air-dried soil was longer than in the moist dark control soils. Half-lives in dry soil were 2-7 times longer, and in the case of atrazine, the absence of moisture precluded significant degradation. Moist soil experiments also tended to correlate more strongly with linear first-order degradations. The dark control experiments also demonstrated shorter half-lives in moist soil. Moisture was also observed to affect the amount of degradate formed in the soils.

An environmental fate study was performed analyzing the effects of soil composition on the soil photolysis of a chemical. The study was conducted in two phases in which both moist and air-dried soils were fortified with either the common fertilizer sodium nitrate or the natural soil components iron or humic acid and dosed with niclosamide. The soils were photolyzed under a xenon lamp for 7 days. Increasing concentration of sodium nitrate did not affect the degradation pattern but did produce a lower concentration of aminoniclosamide. Soils fortified with iron displayed an unknown, which was not observed in other experiments, and the degradation of niclosamide from these soils was slower than from the sodium nitrate-fortified soils. There were no extractable degradates from any of the soils fortified with humic acid. In irradiated moist soils, the half-life of niclosamide increased when sodium nitrate was present at 20 ppm, and the half-lives of niclosamide in iron- and humic acid-fortified soil were increased slightly over that in unfortified soil. The effect of the nitrate and iron on the half-lives in dark control moist soils was minimal, but humic acid increased the dark control half-life from 420 to 611 h. No transformation of niclosamide was observed in the dark control air-dried soils. Soils with higher organic or iron contents or exposed to fertilizers do not affect as dramatically the half-life of pesticides as does the presence of moisture in the soil. Soil photolysis samples that were not maintained with moisture exhibited differences in half-life and degradation pattern. The maintenance of moisture was found to be more crucial to the reliability of soil photolysis studies than soil composition.

The effects of soil depth and moisture on pesticide photolysis were studied. Moist soil at depths of 3, 2.5, 2, 1.5, 1, and 0.5 mm were each dosed at 2.5 microg/g with (14)C-niclosamide and photolyzed under a xenon lamp at constant temperature. Samples were removed after 20, 40, 110, and 153 h of continuous irradiation. The decrease in percent of niclosamide and the appearance of degradates were followed by analyzing the soil extracts by HPLC. A corresponding set of experiments used air-dried soil. An experiment was also performed using initially moist soil which was permitted to dry during photolysis but returned to moist conditions at each sampling. Qualitative and quantitative differences were found in the rate and route of degradation of niclosamide under these conditions. These differences have resulted from a combination of reduced photochemical activity and microbial population in dry soil. The half-lives of niclosamide in the dry soils were 2 to 5 times longer than those in the moisture-maintained soil. There was also a noticeable difference in the half-lives in soil of different depths. Moisture-maintained soil showed a uniform linear increase in half-life from 95 to 195 h as soil depth increased from 0.5 mm to 3.0 mm. With air-dried soil the half-lives were greatly dependent on soil depth, showing a much broader range of 199 h at 0.5-mm to 1064 h in 3.0-mm soil. An experimental design is described which maintains soil temperature and moisture to preset conditions.

Several guanidine compounds were synthesized by the reaction of acid chlorides of thiophene and furan with guanidines. Some of these compounds showed antibiotic and cytotoxic activities. Series of pyrrole compounds were synthesized and found to have significant antibiotic activity.

Methanolic extracts of hard and soft varieties of the sponge Verongia archeri were found to contain similar compounds. An isolation procedure and the structures of 2-(3',5'-dibromo-4'-hydroxyphenyl)-acetamide, 1-(3',5'-dibromo-1',6'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxycyclohexa-2',4'-diene)acetonitrile, and 2-oxo-5,7-dibromo-6-methoxy-9-hydroxy-8,9-dihydrocoumarin from one variety are described.