Search

Background: Zaleplon (ZAL) is a sedative-hypnotic agent, which is mainly metabolized to inactive 5-oxidized zaleplon (5-oxo-ZAL) and N-des-ethylated ZAL (des-ethyl-ZAL) in mice and humans. The former reaction is considered to be catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase present in liver cytosol. Methods: Here, we examined sex and strain differences of ZAL metabolism to 5-oxo-ZAL among four strains of mice, as well as the inter-individual variation in humans, in order to evaluate the variability of 5-oxo-ZAL-forming activity and its relationship with aldehyde oxidase activity. In mice, the activity in C57BL/6J strain was the highest, followed by C3H/He and BALB/c. The activity in DBA/2J was the lowest, being 2.3-fold lower than that of C57BL/6J mice. The activity of male mice was higher than that of female mice. Large inter-individual variations were observed among humans, with a range of 10- fold. Raloxifene, an inhibitor of aldehyde oxidase, markedly decreased the formation of 5-oxo-ZAL by liver cytosol of mice and humans. Further, the plasma level of 5-oxo-ZAL in mice was decreased when raloxifene was co-administered with ZAL. Results: Our results indicate that the formation of 5-oxo-ZAL from ZAL is mainly catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase in mice and humans, and the variability of 5-oxo-ZAL formation is due primarily to differences of aldehyde oxidase activity. Conclusion: High inter-individual variability of ZAL 5-oxidase activity and potential for interaction of ZAL with other medicines that are inhibitors of aldehyde oxidase should be taken into consideration in clinical usage of ZAL.

Patch testing (PT) can be used to identify allergens and irritants responsible for contact allergic and irritant dermatitis, respectively. However, the reproducibility of PT and correlation between PT and use test has not been fully evaluated. The aim of the present study was to examine the reproducibility of PT and its usefulness in assessing the safety of topical drugs. A total of 55 topical drugs were applied to the backs of two groups of subjects for either 24 or 48 h, and skin irritant reactions were graded at 2 and 24 h after patch removal. For the repeat open application test, six topical drugs with different irritation scores were applied to the arms of two groups of subjects twice daily for 3 weeks, and local symptoms were recorded. The mean irritation scores were similar between the two PT groups. The percentage of subjects positive for symptoms provoked by the use tests was similar between the two groups. The mean irritation scores 24 h after patch removal correlated with the skin symptoms provoked by the use test. PT was reproducible and the results correlated with the use test results. PT is a useful method for evaluating the safety of commercial topical drugs.

1. Human chimeric mice (h-PXB mice) having humanized liver, constructed by transplantation of human hepatocytes, were evaluated as an experimental model for predicting human drug metabolism. Metabolism of zaleplon in h-PXB mice was compared with that in rat chimeric mice (r-PXB mice) constructed by transplantation of rat hepatocytes. 2. Zaleplon is metabolized to 5-oxo-zaleplon by aldehyde oxidase and to desethyl-zaleplon by cytochrome P450 (CYP3A4) in rat and human liver preparations. 3. Liver S9 fraction of h-PXB mice metabolized zaleplon to 5-oxo-zaleplon and desethyl-zaleplon in similar amounts. However, liver S9 fractions of r-PXB and control (urokinase-type plasminogen activator-transgenic severe combined immunodeficient) mice predominantly metabolized zaleplon to desethyl-zaleplon. 5-Oxo-zaleplon was detected as a minor metabolite. 4. Oxidase activity of h-PXB mouse liver cytosol toward zaleplon was about 10-fold higher than that of r-PXB or control mice. In contrast, activities for desethyl-zaleplon formation were similar in liver microsomes from these mice, as well as rat and human liver microsomes. 5. In vivo, the level of 5-oxo-zaleplon in plasma of h-PXB mice was about 7-fold higher than that in r-PXB or control mice, in agreement with the in vitro data. Thus, aldehyde oxidase in h-PXB mice functions as human aldehyde oxidase, both in vivo and in vitro. 6. In contrast, the plasma level of desethyl-zaleplon in r-PXB and control mice was higher than that in h-PXB mice. 7. These results suggest h-PXB mice with humanized liver could be a useful experimental model to predict aldehyde oxidase- and CYP3A4-mediated drug metabolism in humans.

The in vivo and in vitro metabolism of the sedative-hypnotic agent zaleplon (ZAL) to 5-hydroxylated ZAL (5-oxo-ZAL) and N-desethylated ZAL (desethyl-ZAL) was studied in four strains of rats. Incubation of ZAL with liver microsomes afforded desethyl-ZAL via cytochrome P450-catalyzed reaction, with little strain difference. In contrast, incubation of ZAL with liver cytosol afforded 5-oxo-ZAL with marked strain differences. ZAL hydroxylase activity was well correlated with aldehyde oxidase activity in these strains. The highest level of 5-oxo-ZAL and the highest activity of aldehyde oxidase were observed in cytosol from Sea:SD rats, followed by Jcl:SD rats, while Crj:SD and WKA/Sea rats showed low levels. When ZAL was administered to Sea:SD and WKA/Sea rats, both 5-oxo-ZAL and desethyl-ZAL were detected in blood as the major in vivo metabolites. However, the concentration of 5-oxo-ZAL was far higher in Sea:SD rats than in WKA/Sea rats, while that of desethyl-ZAL was far lower in Sea:SD rats. The levels of 5-oxo-ZAL in blood were closely correlated with the strain differences of cytosolic ZAL hydroxylase activity and benzaldehyde oxidase activity. Our results indicate that variability in the formation of 5-oxo-ZAL from ZAL in vivo in various strains of rats is primarily due to strain differences of hepatic aldehyde oxidase activity.

Background Trichophyton -induced superficial skin mycosis is a common infectious human disease, but the immunological mechanism against Trichophyton infection is unclear with regard to many points. Since Trichophyton cannot colonize mice, guinea pigs were used in previous experiments on Trichophyton infection. However, it is difficult to perform immunological and genetic analyses in guinea pigs. Objective The objective of this study was to establish a mouse Trichophytin-associated inflammation model of superficial skin mycosis in which immunological and genetic analyses can be performed. Methods We established a mouse Trichophyton -induced contact hypersensitivity model by applying Trichophytin, the Trichophyton antigen, extracted from Trichophyton mentagrophytes , to mice. Using a Th1-dominant strain, C57BL/6, and a Th2-dominant strain, BALB/c, we investigated the expression of inflammatory cytokines and receptors of the innate immune system for fungi, TLR4, TLR2, and dectin-1, and their influences on responses of the acquired immune system. Results In C57BL/6 mice, expressions of IFN-γ and IL-17 A in regional lymph nodes and IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-6, and IL-23 in the inflammatory auricular skin were enhanced by Trichophytin challenge, suggesting that not only Th1 cells but also Th17 cells were induced. In BALB/c mice, expressions of IL-4 in regional lymph nodes, and TSLP and IL-4 in the auricular skin were enhanced by Trichophytin challenge. Interestingly, dectin-1-neutralizing antibody inhibited the promotion of IFN-γ production in C57BL/6 mice, and dectin-1-expressing immune cells had crucial actions in Trichophyton -induced IFN-γ production. Conclusion These results suggest that inflammatory mediators differently regulate Trichophytin-induced contact hypersensitivity on the basis of the status of host immunity.

Aldehyde oxidase-mediated oxidation of N(1)-methylnicotinamide to N(1)-methyl-2-pyridine-5-carboxamide (2-PY) and N(1)-methyl-4-pyridone-5-carboxamide (4-PY) in chimeric mice constructed by transplanting human hepatocytes into urokinase-type plasminogen activator-transgenic severe combined immunodeficient mice was examined in vivo and in vitro. The activity in liver cytosol of chimeric mice with a high replacement index was approximately 4-fold higher than that in control mice. Furthermore, the oxidation products in control mice were 2-PY and 4-PY, whereas, in chimeric mice, the major product was 2-PY, as in humans. The aldehyde oxidase in chimeric mouse liver was confirmed to be of human type by immunoblotting analysis. The ratio of pyridones (2-PY/4-PY) excreted in the urine of chimeric mice was closer to that of humans than to that of control mice. Thus, the aldehyde oxidase in chimeric mice has human-type functional characteristics.