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BACKGROUND: Chestnut flour plays an important role in the production of bread, bakery products, and gluten‐free foods. Most of the references in the literature focus on the drying process itself and not on the effects of the drying and milling processes. Moreover, the literature is lacking recommendations regarding optimal moisture content and milling speed, thus motivating the present study. The first aim is to understand the chestnut drying process through an in‐depth evaluation of drying kinetics; the second aim is to assess the effects of three different moisture content (2%, 4% and 6%) and three different stone rotational speeds (120, 220 and 320 rpm) on operative milling parameters (flour yield, milling time, energy consumption, temperature increase, average power, specific milling energy), flour particle size distribution, and chestnut flours characteristics. RESULTS: The results show that moisture content and stone rotational speed have statistically‐significant effects on milling operative parameters, flour particle size and chestnut flour composition. In particular, stone rotational speed affected almost all the tested variables (mill operative parameters, flour particle size distribution, and flour characteristics). Therefore, as the stone rotational speed increases, energy consumption, average power, specific energy, and damaged starch content significantly increase. CONCLUSION: These findings clearly show that moisture content and stone rotational speed are powerful tools that allow the exploiation of the milling process to modulate the characteristics of the obtained flours. In conclusion, two different approaches for chestnut milling were suggested depending on the type of flour to be produced. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, chestnuts were processed into flour, and the obtained chestnut flour (CF) was passed through a sieve with an aperture size of 212 µm. Then the physicochemical properties, digestible and resistant starch contents of CF1 (<212 µm), CF2 (≥212 µm), and commercial chestnut flour (CCF) were determined. It was found that CCF had the highest values in terms of proximate composition, total soluble polyphenol content (891.25 mg GAE/100 g), and antioxidant activity (ABTS: 1552.11 mg TE/100 g, DPPH: 2003.01 mg TE/100 g). On the other hand, CF1 was superior in terms of resistant starch content (39.31 g/100 g, dw) (p < 0.05). The resistant starch content of CF1 was approximately 1.5-fold and 3-fold higher than CCF and CF2, respectively. Furthermore, the rapidly digestible starch content of CF1 (2.1 g/100 g, dw) and CF2 (0.93 g/100 g, dw) was quite lower than CCF (12.64 g/100 g, dw) (p < 0.05). Moreover, CF1 exhibited lower (p < 0.05) water, alkaline water, and sodium carbonate retention capacities, which make it a potential good flour for cookie and cracker production. In contrast, CF2 could be evaluated as a good ingredient for noodle-type foods due to its lower water solubility index. Considering the least gelation concentrations of samples, it was seen that CF1 (% 10) could also be valorized as a thickening or gelation agent in the food industry, as well as CCF (% 6). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnuts, despite their nutritional value, pose challenges in starch processing, digestion, and absorption. This study employed various color-fixing formulations and processing methods to simulate the in vitro digestion of both untreated and enzymatically hydrolyzed chestnut flour. Changes in starch properties, digestion characteristics, and estimated glycemic index (eGI) were analyzed to understand how enzymatic hydrolysis affects chestnut flour properties. The results showed that the browning of chestnut flour was the least when the mass ratio of vitamin C, citric acid, and EDTA-Na2 was 9:1:0.3. Following treatment with pullulanase and glucoamylase, the content of rapidly digestible starch decreased to 10 %, while the content of slowly digestible starch and resistant starch increased to 62 % and 27 %, respectively. The eGI value of chestnut flour after enzymatic hydrolysis increased to 61.85–65.14, the hydrolysis rate was 78.37 %–89.20 %, the water holding capacity was 5.3–8.6, the solubility was 51.33 %–58.33 %, and the swelling degree decreased to 2.21–3.33 mL/g.

Additives that are rich in biologically active substances are suitable for wheat bread supplementation, including raw materials that are not traditional for breadmaking (such as chestnut flour and rosehip flour). The aim of the present study is to examine the mineral content of wheat bread enriched with chestnut flour and rosehip flour (in the amount of 5% and 10%). It was found that the inclusion of these additives in the bread recipe increased the content of all the investigated elements (except sodium). The content of mineral elements was determined using the ICP-AES method. Among the macroelements, the most significant increase in content was that of calcium when 10% rosehip flour was added to the recipe -- 296 mg/kg (in the control sample -- 108 mg/kg). Among microelements, the iron content had significant increase upon addition of 10% rosehip flour -- 14.7 mg/kg. This amount was almost 11 times higher than that measured in the control sample (1.34 mg/kg). The manganese content also increased notably -- it was 5.83 mg/kg in the sample with 10% chestnut flour, which is nearly 80% more than in the control sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the limitations of the properties of chestnut flour, its applications have been restricted. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of whey protein isolate (WPI) and xanthan gum (XG) on the functional and digestive properties of chestnut flour, specifically focusing on gel texture, solubility and swelling power, water absorption capacity, freeze-thaw stability and starch digestibility. The addition of both WPI and XG reduced the gel hardness, gumminess and chewiness of the co-gelatinized and physically mixed samples. Furthermore, the inclusion of physically mixed WPI and XG led to an increase in the solubility (from 58.2 to 75.0%) and water absorption capacity (from 3.11 to 5.45 g/g) of chestnut flour. The swelling power of the chestnut flour was inhibited by both additives. WPI was superior to XG at maintaining freeze-thaw stability, by reducing the syneresis from 71.9 to 68.1%. Additionally, WPI and XG contributed to the inhibition of starch hydrolysis in the early stage of digestion, resulting in a lower starch digestibility of chestnut flours. This research provides insights into the interaction mechanisms between WPI, XG, and chestnut flour, offering valuable information for the development of chestnut flour products with enhanced properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the effect of supplementation of the flours of chestnut, pumpkin seed, and rosehip on the quantity of some fatty acids of the wheat bread. The bread samples were prepared with non-traditional flours added in amounts of 5 and 10%. The flours were assayed for total protein, carbohydrates, lipids, dietary fibers, and reducing sugars. Based on the content of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, the caloric value of each of the non-traditional flours used was calculated. Pumpkin seed flour has the highest protein and lipid contents (58% proteins, compared to 11.5% for the control wheat flour, and 11% lipids, compared to 1.4% for the control wheat flour, respectively), while chestnut and rosehip flours have a lower protein content than the control flour (7% and 2.2 %, respectively). No differences were observed in total carbohydrate content in wheat and chestnut flours (70.8% and 71.5%), and pumpkin seed and rosehip flours (33.8% and 39.4%). Caloric value results showed that higher caloric value have the flours with a higher content of total lipids. The content of palmitic and stearic fatty acids is the highest in the bread made from 100% wheat flour, and with an increase in the quantity of non-traditional flour added, their amount in the breads significantly decreases. Oleic acid content is the highest in breads supplemented with 5 and 10% chestnut flour, but linolenic acid content is the highest in breads supplemented with 5 and 10% rosehip flour, and arachidonic acid content is the highest in breads supplemented with 5 and 10% pumpkin seed flour. The content of linoleic acid in all tested breads, except for the one made from 100% wheat flour, was the same. Of all the studied unsaturated fatty acids, their content in bread made from 100% wheat flour has the lowest values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnuts have been consumed in Portugal for immemorial times. These fruits are highly appreciated, not only due to their organoleptic characteristics but also due to their nutritional and functional values. For the nutrients to be more accessible and for the chestnuts to have better flavour and digestibility, it is necessary to heat, cook or roast them, for example. Chestnuts are a very versatile food, in terms of preparation, and can be cooked, roasted, as an accompaniment to dishes, replacing rice, pasta or potatoes, in the base of soups or the preparation of appetizing desserts and cakes. In Portugal the use of chestnuts to produce differentiated food products is traditional, but also new and innovative products are appearing on the market, either made with chestnuts or even with some residues of their processing, in the context of a circular economy. Examples of traditional usages of chestnut in Portugal include chestnut soup, or roasted chestnuts, which are typically consumed in the colder months of autumn and winter. In what concerns more modern trends, the use of chestnut flour to incorporate into a variety of foods, like bread, cookies or pasta is highlighted. This article explores the value of the chestnut sector in Portugal and the use of these fruits to obtain either traditional or innovative foods, such as bread, biscuits, pasta and beverages.

Microwave treatment, roasting, boiling, and enzymatic treatment were used to prepare cooked and instant chestnut flour, and the in vitro digestibility were compared. Cooking gelatinized the starch and destroyed the granular and crystal structure, increasing starch digestibility. After enzymatic hydrolysis, starches were degraded by 20~24%, and the reducing sugar content of the instant flours increased by 79~94%. Starch digestibility was reduced after enzymatic hydrolysis, however, the estimated glycemic index (GI) increased to 65.1 ~ 77.7 due to the combined effect of increased reducing sugar and decreased starch hydrolysis in the instant flours. The chestnuts treated by 'boiling + enzymes' are still a medium GI food. These findings give guidance for the development of low GI cooked and instant chestnut flour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scientific research done in the past few years has been conducted with the aim of discovering and developing new materials and technologies to develop foods that are healthier and more valuable nutrition-wise. The new generation of products should be in accordance with the environmental directives, sustainable, should do no harm, and should also ensure equitability of the market. Among the unconventional materials that caught our attention, chestnuts and rosehips are sustainable, underexploited resources that meet dietary and nutritional requirements. The aim of this paper is to gather comprehensive knowledge and get an overview of the use of chestnut flour and rosehip powder in different value-added food products, and to identify the possible gaps in the current knowledge. This work will help the further research in the field of valorization of chestnut and rosehip, and therefore, contribute to the development of innovative functional food formulations. Moreover, this matter is of importance because the generation of novel products would meet consumer expectations and will both help generate income to the food industry and provide a more sustainable use of resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gluten-free bread is the basis of an elimination diet in the case of many glucose-related diseases. The quality of this bread differs significantly from traditional products; therefore, it is necessary to conduct research aimed at improving the quality of this type of product. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the addition of chestnut flour and the method of packaging on the quality of gluten-free bread. The addition of chestnut flour (partially replacing corn starch) was used in the amount of 5, 10, 15 and 20% of the total weight of the concentrate. The influence of the storage method on the quality of the tested bread was examined after 7, 14 and 21 days from baking. The refrigerated breads were packed using PA/PE barrier foil with air and vacuum (58%) and were stored in room temperature (22 ± 2 °C). Water content, texture and color were determined, and sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis were performed. As a result of the conducted research, we observed that the addition of chestnut flour to the recipe affects significantly (p < 0.05) the texture of the finished product, reducing the hardness and increasing the elasticity and cohesiveness of the bread crumb. The use of chestnut flour in an amount of up to 10% increases significantly (p < 0.05) the volume of the resulting loaves. Microbiological research has indicated vacuum packaging as a better way to protect and store gluten-free bread. For practical use in future production, it is recommended to replace corn starch in gluten-free breads by no more than 10% by chestnut flour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In European countries, the utilisation of chestnut flours (CF) has been increasing in the bakery industry because the CF ingredients provide not only nutritional and health benefits but also improve organoleptic and health-promoting properties. This work aimed to describe the phytochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of chestnut flours from different Castanea spp. genotypes and origins, studying the effects of the addition of CF to traditional wheat-based cookies on their quality and sensory traits. Commercial chestnut flours were also considered. CF used in addition to wheat-based flours may increase the quality and health-promoting value of bakery products for its many benefits: (i) nutritional and phytochemical value; (ii) zero-Km availability in many producing areas (Europe, Asia, Australia, and North and South America); (iii) for these areas, food security is connected to a vulnerable wheat-based food system. Chromatographic and spectroscopic methods were utilised to assess the composition and antioxidant properties of the considered chestnut flours. The sensory value of the prepared chestnut/wheat-based cookies was also assessed by a panel of common consumers (hedonistic test by a 9-points hedonistic scale). Monoterpenes were the main substances in the flour phytocomplex, reaching 80–90% of the total, followed by phenolics (8–12%) and vitamin C in trace (1–3%). Antioxidant capacity ranged from 9.64 ± 0.96 mmol Fe+2 kg−1 DW (BOUC flour from cv Bouche de Bétizac) to 17.33 ± 1.35 mmol Fe+2 kg−1 DW (CANA flour from cv Canalutta). In this research study, the cookies derived from CANA and BOUC flours were considered the most appreciated products by consumers, with values of 7.09 ± 0.46 and 6.88 ± 0.18, respectively. These results confirmed that integrating phytochemical data with sensory results is very important for food industries to obtain a complete description of the analysed flours and consequently of the derived products to produce new bakery products highly appreciated by consumers with high health value in comparison to the traditional products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnuts, despite their nutritional value, pose challenges in starch processing, digestion, and absorption. This study employed various color-fixing formulations and processing methods to simulate the in vitro digestion of both untreated and enzymatically hydrolyzed chestnut flour. Changes in starch properties, digestion characteristics, and estimated glycemic index (eGI) were analyzed to understand how enzymatic hydrolysis affects chestnut flour properties. The results showed that the browning of chestnut flour was the least when the mass ratio of vitamin C, citric acid, and EDTA-Na 2 was 9:1:0.3. Following treatment with pullulanase and glucoamylase, the content of rapidly digestible starch decreased to 10 %, while the content of slowly digestible starch and resistant starch increased to 62 % and 27 %, respectively. The eGI value of chestnut flour after enzymatic hydrolysis increased to 61.85-65.14, the hydrolysis rate was 78.37 %-89.20 %, the water holding capacity was 5.3-8.6, the solubility was 51.33 %-58.33 %, and the swelling degree decreased to 2.21-3.33 mL/g., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

In recent years, one of the meat industry's goals has been focused on developing meat products with functional ingredients, in order to improve their nutritional profile and prevent the risk of specific diseases' appearance. The main purpose of this work was the preparation of a reformulated meat product with the addition of wild garlic and chestnut flour, aiming the improvement of its nutritional characteristics, reducing the fat content and extending the shelf life. The classic mixture of ingredients for concerned meat product was used as a control sample, while other four samples were reformulated by the partially addition of wild garlic and chestnut flour in different proportions. Total phenolic compounds of wild garlic and chestnut flour was determined according to the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Water binding capacity and oxidative stability of reformulated samples were evaluated in relation with the control sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A low estimated glycemic index (eGI) chestnut flour was prepared using a combination of pullulanase debranching and heat moisture treatment (HMT). The modified samples had a lower eGI range of 49.1–53.0 compared to native chestnut flour (NCF) which had an eGI of 67.3. Furthermore, the dual treatment was found to be more effective than a single treatment. The total starch content decreased from 57.0 to 47.1 g/100 g after debranching and HMT, resulting in an increase in amylose content from 30.6 % to 48.5 %. A 1H NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) analysis revealed that modified flours showed a reduction in α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. NCF exhibited a C-type crystal structure, while the debranched samples showed B+V-type crystallinity with an increased peak at 20°(2θ). Debranching increased the proportion of short linear chains, which facilitated the formation of amylose-lipid complexes. HMT resulted in partial starch gelatinization and the breakage of amylopectin. These findings emphasize the potential applications of debranching and HMT in producing chestnut flour with a low eGI, which can further be used in functional food products. • Total starch decreased and amylose increased after debranching and heat moisture treatment. • Debranched chestnut flours exhibited B+V-type crystallinity. • Modified chestnut flours showed a reduction in α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. • Low estimated glycemic index chestnut flour was successfully prepared by pullulanase debranching and heat moisture treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effect of chestnut flour substitution on the physicochemical and sensory properties of burger (30% meat) was investigated. Chestnut flour levels were 0, 3, 6 and 9% that were replaced with toasted flour in the formulation. Chestnut flour improved all the treatments cooking characteristics significantly (PP

Gluten-free bread is the basis of an elimination diet in the case of many glucose-related diseases. The quality of this bread differs significantly from traditional products; therefore, it is necessary to conduct research aimed at improving the quality of this type of product. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of the addition of chestnut flour and the method of packaging on the quality of gluten-free bread. The addition of chestnut flour (partially replacing corn starch) was used in the amount of 5, 10, 15 and 20% of the total weight of the concentrate. The influence of the storage method on the quality of the tested bread was examined after 7, 14 and 21 days from baking. The refrigerated breads were packed using PA/PE barrier foil with air and vacuum (58%) and were stored in room temperature (22 ± 2 °C). Water content, texture and color were determined, and sensory evaluation and microbiological analysis were performed. As a result of the conducted research, we observed that the addition of chestnut flour to the recipe affects significantly (p < 0.05) the texture of the finished product, reducing the hardness and increasing the elasticity and cohesiveness of the bread crumb. The use of chestnut flour in an amount of up to 10% increases significantly (p < 0.05) the volume of the resulting loaves. Microbiological research has indicated vacuum packaging as a better way to protect and store gluten-free bread. For practical use in future production, it is recommended to replace corn starch in gluten-free breads by no more than 10% by chestnut flour.

In European countries, the utilisation of chestnut flours (CF) has been increasing in the bakery industry because the CF ingredients provide not only nutritional and health benefits but also improve organoleptic and health-promoting properties. This work aimed to describe the phytochemical properties and antioxidant capacity of chestnut flours from different Castanea spp. genotypes and origins, studying the effects of the addition of CF to traditional wheat-based cookies on their quality and sensory traits. Commercial chestnut flours were also considered. CF used in addition to wheat-based flours may increase the quality and health-promoting value of bakery products for its many benefits: (i) nutritional and phytochemical value; (ii) zero-Km availability in many producing areas (Europe, Asia, Australia, and North and South America); (iii) for these areas, food security is connected to a vulnerable wheat-based food system. Chromatographic and spectroscopic methods were utilised to assess the composition and antioxidant properties of the considered chestnut flours. The sensory value of the prepared chestnut/wheat-based cookies was also assessed by a panel of common consumers (hedonistic test by a 9-points hedonistic scale). Monoterpenes were the main substances in the flour phytocomplex, reaching 80–90% of the total, followed by phenolics (8–12%) and vitamin C in trace (1–3%). Antioxidant capacity ranged from 9.64 ± 0.96 mmol Fe+2 kg−1 DW (BOUC flour from cv Bouche de Bétizac) to 17.33 ± 1.35 mmol Fe+2 kg−1 DW (CANA flour from cv Canalutta). In this research study, the cookies derived from CANA and BOUC flours were considered the most appreciated products by consumers, with values of 7.09 ± 0.46 and 6.88 ± 0.18, respectively. These results confirmed that integrating phytochemical data with sensory results is very important for food industries to obtain a complete description of the analysed flours and consequently of the derived products to produce new bakery products highly appreciated by consumers with high health value in comparison to the traditional products.

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Chestnut flour (CNF) was added as a substitute for wheat flour in the ratios of 5%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% (w/w) to noodle. The physiochemical, cooking and sensory properties of the CNF -added noodles were determined. The total dietary fiber and ash contents of the noodles increased with increasing CNF, while the calorie values decreased compared with control. Decreasing L* and b* values, darkening color and increasing a* values were observed with increasing CNF addition. The CNF addition caused increased cooking loss and decreased volume expansion and weight gain in noodles. According to the sensory analysis, the control sample had the highest overall appreciation score, followed by the 10% CNF-added noodle sample. The results of the study showed that chestnut flour can be added to improve the nutritional and functional properties of noodle and other grain products and use of chestnut flour can contribute to the functional food market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect on chemical composition, physico‐chemical properties, cooking characteristics, fatty acid profile, lipid oxidation, and sensory acceptability of an oil‐in‐water emulsion gel that was prepared with chestnut flour, chia oil, gellan gum, and water (CEG), used as a fat replacer in pork burgers. The original mixture was used as a control sample (CS). The other samples were formulated partially replacing pork backfat with 5% of CEG (CEG5%) and 10% of CEG (CEG10%). RESULTS: Proximate analysis of samples showed several differences between samples. The CEG addition was found to be effective for improving the cooking yield while diameter reduction and thickness increase were positively affected. As regards lipid oxidation, in cooked burger, the 2‐thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values for CS, CEG5% and CEG10% were 0.46, 0.57, and 0.59 mg malonaldehyde/kg sample, respectively. The linolenic and linolenic acid content of pork burger increased as CEG addition increased. Sensory properties for CS and CEG5% were similar whereas CEG10% showed the highest sensory scores. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of chestnut flour and chia oil could be used as a novel ingredient to develop pork burgers with a better nutritional profile without diminishing their sensory and physico‐chemical properties. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Additions of barley flour alone or with combination of chestnut and acorn flour (30%; 30+5%; 30+10%) were aimed at increasing the dietary fibre content in wheat bread. In this regard, enhancement by acorn flour elevated the dietary fibre by a greater extent (up to 7.80%) compared to barley or chestnut flours. Increasing the proportion of non-traditional raw materials also influenced flour pasting properties during the amylograph test as well as the farinograph and extensigraph properties of nonfermented dough. In contrast to the wheat flour, analysis of Falling Number and Zeleny values showed a decrease in technological potential of flour composites of approximately 30%. Water absorption increased about 2 percentage points, mainly with enhancement by chestnut flour. All the non-traditional raw materials slowed dough development, whilst dough softening degree differed according to actual composition. Dough viscous and elastic properties worsened as shown by a decrease of in energy absorbed, depending on the type and the addition of the non-traditional products. Changes in flour composition were reflected in amylograph viscosity maximum, which became lower with increasing amounnts of chestnt and acorn flour. A significant worsening of the bread specific volume as well as of bread shape (vaulting) corresponded with a partial dilution of the gluten matrix. Compared to the wheat bread, 10% chestnut flour caused bread size to diminish to less than one half of the wheat loaf. Statistically, the principal features were water absorption, dough softening degree and extensigraph energy together with specific bread volume. In terms of wheat flour and bread quality, the influence of barley flour overcame the effects of adding chestnut or acorn flours.

Wheat bread, produced by the single-phase method, is a common food consumed all over the world. Due to changes in lifestyle and nutritional trends, alternative raw materials are sought to increase the nutritional value and improve the taste of daily consumed products. Additionally, customers seek a wide variety of foods, especially when it comes to basic foods. Nuts, such as coconuts or chestnuts, might provide an attractive flavour with benefits to the nutritional quality. In this study, the effect of substituting wheat flour with coconut or chestnut flour (flour contribution level: 5, 10, 15, 30, 50% w/w), was evaluated in terms of the breads specific volume, texture, colour, nutritional composition, and dietary fibre fraction contents. Moreover, a sensory evaluation was conducted to assess potential consumer acceptance. Based on the consumer’s perception, the overall acceptance of bread with 15% w/w of coconut and chestnut flour was in privilege compared to the control sample. As a result, taking all of the tested parameters into account, the breads with 5, 10, and 15% supplementation of chestnut or coconut flour were still of good quality compared to the wheat bread and their fibre content was significantly higher.

Additions of barley flour alone or with combination of chestnut and acorn flour (30%; 30+5%; 30+10%) were aimed at increasing the dietary fibre content in wheat bread. In this regard, enhance-ment by acorn flour elevated the dietary fibre by a greater extent (up to 7.80%) compared to barley or chestnut flours. Increasing the proportion of non-traditional raw materials also inuenced flour pasting properties during the amylograph test as well as the farinograph and extensigraph properties of non-fermented dough. In contrast to the wheat flour, analysis of Falling Number and Zeleny values showed a decrease in technological potential of flour composites of approximately 30%. Water absorption in-creased about 2 percentage points, mainly with enhancement by chestnut flour. All the non-traditional raw materials slowed dough development, whilst dough softening degree differed according to actual composition. Dough viscous and elastic properties worsened as shown by a decrease of in energy ab-sorbed, depending on the type and the addition of the non-traditional products. Changes in flour composition were reected in amylograph viscosity maximum, which became lower with increasing amounnts of chestnt and acorn flour. A significant worsening of the bread specific volume as well as of bread shape (vaulting) corresponded with a partial dilution of the gluten matrix. Compared to the wheat bread, 10% chestnut flour caused bread size to diminish to less than one half of the wheat loaf. Statistically, the principal features were water absorption, dough softening degree and extensigraph energy together with specific bread volume. In terms of wheat flour and bread quality, the inuence of barley flour overcame the effects of adding chestnut or acorn flours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The industrial process of freezing chestnuts generates 55-60% of by-products. This study aimed to valorise these low-value by-products by producing high-value chestnut flour. Two flour production processes were evaluated, using raw (RCF) and cooked (CCF10, CCF30, CCF50) chestnut by-products during 10, 30 and 50 min. The highest production yield was obtained for RCF (43.6 ± 1.0%) followed by CCF10 (38.0 ± 1.0%). Regarding flour composition, CCF50 presented the smaller protein, fat, fibre and ash contents (P < 0.05). For colour, aw, pH and sedimentation index, no significant differences were observed namely between RCF and CCF10 (P > 0.05). The CCF10 flour also presented the smallest particle size. The highest peroxide index was found in CCF50 penalizing its acceptance by consumers due to the evidence of rancidity, emphasizing that long time-periods of cooking must be avoided. Finally, up to 129 days of storage, under no temperature or lighting controlled conditions, all chestnut flours showed to be stable overtime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate thermal properties and estimated glycemic index of various gluten-free flours (rice, chestnut, chickpea and bean). Gluten-free bread was prepared by mixing chestnut, chickpea and bean flours with rice flour at different ratio (0:100, 25:75, 50:50) using straight dough bread making process. Bean flour reflected the lower estimated glycemic index as compared to the other gluten-free flours. The chestnutrice flour (50:50) bread exhibited the highest texture firmness after 8 days of storage, followed by the rice flour bread. Chestnut-rice flour (25:75) bread was the swellest comparatively. Future studies may be focused on developing the sensorial characteristics of gluten-free breads prepared from chickpea and bean flours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Effect of different ratios of chestnut flour substitution on brown rice flour based snack was investigated for technological and nutritional properties. Pasting properties significantly varied among the flour ratios and the higher levels of chestnut flour led to the increase in pasting properties. Colour parameters, L∗, a∗ and b∗ values of snacks decreased with increase in chestnut flour level. Expansion ratio of snacks is increased while as hardness decreased with progressive increase of chestnut flour. Mineral analysis showed that snacks were rich in potassium, phosphorus, sulphur and magnesium etc. Scanning electronic microscopy showed the porous structure of fried snack which leads to increase in expansion ratio. Flavour value of snacks was increased with the increase in chestnut flour level in the blend. Based on present study, brown rice-chestnut flour based snacks have good potential for consumer acceptance and are regarded as health promoting functional food, especially for celiac disease patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The porosity of the muffin is an important characteristic of its quality. The number of pores, total area, average size, circularity and solidity of four types of gluten free muffins made of rice, chickpea and chestnut flours was investigated, using the Image Analysis. A significant difference is observed in some of the characteristics analysed such as the total area and the number of pores between the samples, with the rice having the highest total pore area and the chestnut - the lowest. The overall characteristics demonstrate that the chestnut muffin has the best porosity, followed by the wheat muffin, which proves that chestnut flour can be a successful substitute of wheat flour in the production of gluten-free muffins, regarding the porosity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnut fruit abounds in carbohydrates, proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, fiber, polyphenolic compounds, as well as vitamins and micronutrients, that are behind the health-promoting properties of this plant. The purpose of the discussed research was to obtain innovative gluten-free pasta from rice and field bean flour enriched with a various addition of chestnut flour. Regarding the studied pasta, the following were determined: the content of free phenolic acids, total polyphenols, and antioxidant properties. Chromatographic analysis (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS (high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry)) revealed a wide variety of phenolic acids. In a sample with 20% and higher content of chestnut flour, as many as 13 acids were detected. Isoferulic acid prevailed. The total content of free phenolic acids and total polyphenols increased along with the increasing chestnut content. Moreover, in most cases, the content of individual acids increased with the addition of chestnut flour. Besides, the antioxidant activity was positively correlated with the addition of chestnut fruit flour, the content of free phenolic acids, and total polyphenols. Our research has demonstrated that our innovative gluten-free pasta, with the addition of chestnut flour, has a potential to be a source of polyphenolic compounds, including free phenolic acids, that are valuable for human health.

The effect of sourdough fermentation combined with chestnut flour was investigated for improving technological and nutritional quality of gluten-free bread during 5 day shelf life by means of chemico-physical and nutritional properties. Sourdough fermentation by itself and with chestnut flour reduced volume of loaves and heterogeneity in crumb grain. Sourdough technology allowed increasing crumb moisture content with no significant variations during shelf-life. Chestnut flour darkened crumb and crust while no effects on colour were observed for sourdough. Sourdough and/or chestnut flour addition caused a significant increase in crumb hardness at time 0 while a significant reduction of staling was observed only at 5 days, even if a decrease in amylopectin fusion enthalpy was observed. The percentage of hydrolysed starch during in vitro digestion was significantly reduced by sourdough fermentation with a presumable lower glycaemic index. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermo-rheological behaviour of chestnut flour doughs supplemented with kappa/iota-hybrid carrageenan (HC) (up to 2.0%, flour basis (f.b.)) and sodium chloride (1.8%, f.b.) was determined at both target (C1) and final (C5) mixing peaks. For this purpose, small amplitude oscillatory shear (0.01 to 100 Hz), creep-recovery (loading of 50 Pa for 60 s, 30 °C), temperature sweeps (from 30 up to 180 °C) and heating/cooling cycles (between 30 and 60 °C) were conducted on a controlled stress rheometer. Previously, the thermal-mixing behaviour at proposed mixing temperature (50 °C) was conducted on Mixolab® apparatus. Results showed that the dough stability (from 2.2 to 5.8 min) in mixing stage and starch heat resistance to dough processing were significantly improved at proposed mixing temperature, even in the absence of HC. No statistical differences in rheological properties were observed for doughs evaluated in C1; however, those analysed in C5 were significantly modified in the presence of HC, mainly in terms of viscous behaviour (from 52.1 × 10 to 39.1 × 10 Pa s). Creep-recovery data sets, successfully fitted using Burgers model, revealed that the elasticity ( J / J from 73.3 to 87.6%) of doughs analysed in C5 improved with HC addition. Thermal tests showed that the starch transitions were significantly promoted and stabilized with HC addition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to study spontaneously fermented chestnut flour sourdough and to evaluate its effect in gluten-free bread based on corn starch and chestnut flour. Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts counts, pH and titratable acidity of chestnut flour sourdough were measured during 6 days of sourdough propagation. Chestnut flour sourdough fermented for 5 days with back-slopping every 24 h with 33 % of the ripe sourdough was selected to elaborate gluten-free bread. Control breads contained 15, 20 or 25 % of chestnut flour, and sourdough breads contained the same amount of chestnut flour added as chestnut flour sourdough. Chestnut flour sourdough improved bread specific volume, rendered breads with lighter crusts, reduced crumb hardness at day 0 and day 7 and reduced pH. However, chestnut flour sourdough had no effect on yeasts and molds growth during 7 days of bread storage and did not influence sensory characteristics perceived by consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study was to develop gluten-free wafer sheet formulations by replacing rice flour partially with different gluten-free flours at different ratios. Rice-corn flour blends, rice-buckwheat flour blends and rice-chestnut flour blends with different ratios (80:20, 60:40, 40:60) were used in the experiments in order to find the higher quality and more nutritional gluten-free wafer sheet formulations. As a control, wafer sheet samples containing only rice flour and only wheat flour were used. Rheological properties of batters and color and texture of wafer sheets were determined. In the rheological analyses, it was observed that Power law model was suitable to explain the flow behavior of all samples. Among these samples rice and buckwheat flour containing sample at a ratio of 60:40 had the closest value of consistency and flow behavior index to wheat flour containing sample. In texture analyses, samples containing only rice flour and all the samples with corn flours had harder texture compared to the other samples. In the color analyses of wafer sheets, the effects of natural color of the flours were clearly observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnut ( Castanea sativa Mill.) is an important fruit crop, representing a fundamental economic resource in rural areas. The consumption of chestnut fruit has increased in recent years, after decades of neglect due to high prices and loss of food traditions. Nevertheless, chestnut is a precious food, since it is a source of starch, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, antioxidants and vitamins. Moreover, chestnut flour can be used in gluten free formulations. The aim of this work was to evaluate by proximate analysis the fatty acids and amino acids profile and the antioxidant capacity of nine native cultivars from Emilia Romagna region, for two consecutive years. By using 2-way ANOVA analysis considering the factors “ C. sativa cultivar” and “harvesting year” it was possible to state the non-dependence of carbohydrates on these two factors. On the contrary, the variability of crude fat, crude proteins, free amino acids profile and total antioxidant capacity depend both on cultivar and harvesting year. Chestnut flours are a good source of oleic and linoleic acids: their levels, together with that of palmitic acid, are affected by the cultivar; stearic and linolenic acid variability is instead due to the harvest year. The nutritional data from this research can provide useful information for the bakery industry, in view of the new trend of functional products able to merge tradition and innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Bread traditionally made from wheat is now often supplemented with alternative functional ingredients as chestnut flours; no data have been previously published about the staling of chestnut-containing bread. Thus short-term storage (3 days) for chestnut flour-supplemented soft wheat bread is evaluated by means of selected physicochemical properties (i.e. water dynamics, texture, colour, crumb grain characteristic, total antioxidant capacity). RESULTS Bread prepared with a 20:80 ratio of chestnut:soft wheat flours maintained its moisture content in both crust and crumb. Crumb hardness, after baking, was found to be significantly higher than that of the soft wheat bread; it did not change during storage, whereas it significantly increased in the control bread until the end of the shelf life. The supplemented bread presented a heterogeneous crumb structure, with a significant decrease in the largest pores during shelf life, relative to the shrinkage of crumb grain. The control exhibited a significant redistribution of crumb holes, with a decrease in the smallest grain classes and an increase in the intermediate ones, most likely caused by cell wall thickening. The colour of the crumb remained unaltered in both breads. The crust of the control presented a significant decrease of a* (redness) and that of the supplemented bread exhibited a decrease of b* (yellowness). The antioxidant capacity was detected after day 1 of storage in the chestnut flour bread only. CONCLUSION Chestnut flour supplementation could represent a feasible way of producing bread with improved characteristics, not only just after baking but also during shelf life. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative materials for bread production, which are used to enrich its composition, cause changes in the quality of dough and loaves that are important for bakers. We tested the applicability in bread making of four non-cereal flours: chestnut, coconut, flax and hemp at 5%, 10% and 15% of wheat flour replacement. All the flours, except for chestnut, improved dough rheology and protein content. Coconut flour decreased gelatinization maximum, while the other flours, in particular flax flour, increased it. The increasing rate of coconut flour and 15% of chestnut and hemp flours reduced the bread volume, while 10% of flax flour improved it. All the flours, except for coconut, darkened the crumb, chestnut gave it additional purple shade and hemp made it the darkest. Coconut and flax addition gave the bread high sensory acceptability, while chestnut and hemp breads were negatively scored due to a strong, strange and musty aroma, and a strange crumb colour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the possible usage of chestnut flour in gluten-free cake formulation was investigated. Response surface methodology was used to evaluate the effects of water, xanthan and guar gum mixture and potato starch. Crust and crumb attributes, sensory and textural properties of the cake samples were investigated. Considering all cake properties, better results were obtained by increasing xanthan gum in the gum blend. Increasing the amount of potato starch in the chestnut flour-potato starch blend decreased the batter density, consistency, hardness and chewiness, but increased the specific volume, cohesiveness and scores of the interior and exterior attributes. Optimum concentration of gum mixture was found as 0.225% xanthan gum, 0.075% guar gum and ratio of chestnut flour to potato starch was 7:3. Then, four different levels of transglutaminase were added to control and optimized gluten-free cake formula. The highest desirability value was obtained in gluten-free formula containing 0.25% transglutaminase. According to the results of the sensory analyses, no significant difference was observed between control and gluten-free cake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, as celiac disease is becoming more common the consumers' demand for gluten-free products with high nutritional and taste quality is increasing. This work deals with the study of the impact of four novelty gluten-free sources: chestnut flour (Cf), whole rice flour (Rw), Carolino rice flour (Rc) and Agulha rice flour (Ra). Textural, thermorheological and stability performance of gluten-free gels using different experimental techniques were evaluated. Mixed gels were also produced for comparison. Texture parameters were determined from the texture profile analysis using a texturometer. Thermorheological oscillatory measurements were conducted in a stress-controlled rheometer in order to clarify the kinetics of gel formation and to characterise the structure of the matured gels. The stability of the gels was evaluated using transmittance profiling of the gels under gravitational fields (LUMiSizer®). Texture studies suggested that gels from mixtures of chestnut flour at 30 % and rice flour at 20 % showed the right texture to develop gel-based new desserts. Rheological results showed that the thermal profiles on heating of Cf gels were similar to those obtained for Rw and Ra, whereas Rc gels exhibited a particular pattern. Once the final gelatinisation temperature was achieved, no significant differences on the viscoelastic properties were noticed for all the tested gels. Stability tests showed that gels with Rc should present an industrial advantage over the other assayed formulations, since the stability of these gels is of the order of four times larger. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, wheat breads supplemented with different contents of chestnut flour (wheat/chestnut flour ratios: 100/0; 80/20; 50/50), were evaluated on the basis of physico-chemical properties (proximate composition, fatty acids, texture, colour, crumb grain, antioxidant capacity, volatile profile). Proximate composition, fatty acids, antioxidant capacity and volatiles for wheat and chestnut flours and their blends in the same proportion were also determined. Antioxidant capacity increased with chestnut flour content in bread, and in accordance with flour values. A richer volatile profile was shown by bread supplemented with this type of flour as well as for flours. In particular, a marked increase was observed in furans, with their toasty and nutty notes, and phenolic compounds, with their woody and smoky notes. A more heterogeneous crumb structure characterized 80/20 breads added of chestnut flour with larger and more asymmetrical cavities as compared to a finer and more homogeneous pore distribution of the other formulated breads. A lower volume, harder and darker crumb was also shown by bread formulated with 50/50 ratio of chestnut flour in comparison with the other formulations probably due to its higher fibre and sugar contents. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this study, the effects of chestnut flour and xanthan-guar gum blend-emulsifier DATEM mixture addition on macro- and microstructure of rice breads baked in conventional and infrared-microwave combination ovens were investigated by using the images obtained by a scanner and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Pore area fraction, pore size distribution, and roundness values of pores were determined. The highest pore area fraction values were obtained in breads prepared by replacement of 46 % of rice flour with chestnut flour containing xanthan-guar gum blend-DATEM mixture and baked in an infrared-microwave combination oven. On the other hand, rice breads containing no additives or chestnut flour had the lowest pore area fraction values. Infrared-microwave combination baking increased both pore area fraction values and total number of pores. Infrared-microwave combination baking caused approximately 23-28 % increase in number of the small pores (0-5 mm) in rice breads and 71 % increase in number of the large pores (>10 mm) in chestnut-rice breads. The fiber content and larger starch granules of chestnut flour contributed towards the stabilization of gas bubbles resulting in better crumb structure. More homogenous pore distributions were observed when additives and an infrared-microwave combination oven were used. When microstructure of gluten-free breads was investigated, it was seen that starch granules in chestnut-rice breads baked in an infrared-microwave combination oven did not disintegrate completely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study, gluten-free bread formulations using chestnut and rice flours at different ratios (0/100, 10/90, 20/80, 30/70, 40/60, 50/50 and 100/0) were tested. In addition, the influence of hydrocolloid blend (xanthan–locustbean gum (LBG), xanthan–guar gum blend) and emulsifier DATEM on the rheological properties of dough formulations and quality parameters of breads were also investigated for the samples having chestnut/rice flour ratio of 10/90, 20/80, 30/70 and 40/60. Herschel–Bulkley model was found to explain the flow behavior of all dough formulations. The power-law index (n) of dough samples at 25°C ranged from 0.52 to 0.87, the consistency index (K) of the samples ranged from 3.6 to 79Pasn and the yield stress of the samples ranged from 4.8 to 85.9Pa. The breads prepared with chestnut/rice flour ratio of 30/70 and containing xanthan–guar blend and emulsifier, had higher quality in terms of hardness, specific volume, color and sensory values. However, elevated levels of chestnut flour led to some deterioration in quality parameters (low volume, harder texture and darker color) regardless of gum blend and emulsifier addition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Adsorption and desorption isotherms of chestnut and wheat flour at different temperatures (20, 35, 50 and 65°C) were determined over a range of water activity of 0.09–0.91 using a static gravimetric method. According to BET classification the obtained isotherms for both flours were of type II. Taking into account IUPAC classification the hysteresis loops were of type H3. Experimental data were fitted by means of GAB and Chung–Pfost models. GAB model gave the best results for both flours, but both models can be considered adequate by the analysis of some statistical parameters such as the mean relative percentage deviation modulus, root mean square error and coefficient of determination. The net isosteric heats of sorption, estimated by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, decreased in both flours when moisture content of samples increased. Heats of desorption were higher than the heats of adsorption at each moisture content and temperature in both flours, but in the case of wheat flour strong differences at low moisture contents were found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of chestnut flour (Castanea sativa Mill) on L. plantarum viability and physicochemical characteristics in a dry-cured sausage (Longaniza de Pascua) during storage is discussed. Four batches were prepared: CL with 3% chestnut flour added; CPL with 3% chestnut flour and 8.5 log CFU/g L. plantarum added; PL with 8.5 log CFU/g L. plantarum added and L, the batch control. The sausages were stored at 4 °C and 20 °C, and vacuum packed for 43 d. L. plantarum viability was affected by storage time (P < 0.001). However, higher L. plantarum counts at the final of storage were reached due to chestnut flour addition (P < 0.001). At room storage, chestnut flour caused a higher increase in TBARS values (P = 0.022). Nevertheless, all lipid oxidation treatments were in the range of accepted values at the sensory detection level. In conclusion, Longaniza de Pascua can be kept at 4 °C or 20 °C for 43 d without causing any rancidity problems. • The addition of chestnut flour in Longaniza de Pascua caused a higher L. plantarum counts at final of storage. • Vacuum packaged Longaniza de Pascua could be stored during 43 d without causing any rancidity problem. • The L. plantarum addition to Longaniza de Pascua requires cold storage temperature to keep the probiotic viability. • The hue always remained around red, which is typical of Longaniza de Pascua. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since high temperature facilitates the gelatinization of starch, temperature is generally recognized to play a key factor in the digestibility of starch during the drying process. However, the food matrix is complex and other factors may influence the digestibility of starch in dried whole flour. In this study, the drying temperature varied depending on the drying method used, i.e. , freeze drying (−45 °C), natural drying (25 °C), vacuum drying (40 °C), hot-air drying (50 °C) and roasting (200 °C), and a pretreatment with ascorbic acid or salicylic acid was used to produce whole chestnut flour. The estimated glycemic index was higher for hot-air dried and freeze-dried chestnut flour, while that for vacuum-dried, roasted and phenolics-pretreated hot-air dried chestnut flour was lower than that for naturally-dried chestnut flour. During the drying process, the digestibility of starch was correlated with the drying temperature, long- and short-range molecular order, and other compounds in the chestnut. • Digestibility of starch from whole chestnut flour varies with drying temperature. • Freeze or hot-air drying induces high digestibility of starch in whole chestnut flour. • Vacuum drying contributes to the low digestibility of starch in whole chestnut flour. • Roasting leads to low starch digestibility despite the geletinization of starch. • Phenolic pretreatment increases the cystallinity of starch and reduces the digestibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analytical method based on dispersive solid-phase extraction (d-SPE) and ultrafast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS) was employed for the determination of 43 mycotoxins in chestnut flour and wheat flour. A total of 128 samples consisting of 48 chestnut samples and 80 wheat flour samples were collected randomly and subjected to analysis. Finally, five specific toxins were selected as markers to identify these two foodstuffs. Acetonitrile-water (84∶16, v/v) was used to extract mycotoxins from chestnut flour and wheat flour. After extraction, the supernatant was transferred to the d-SPE equipment, using which purification was performed with C 18 and EMR-Lipid (lipid adsorbent). Chromatographic separation was carried out by gradient elution with eluent A (ESI + : 0.1% formic acid, ESI - : water) and eluent B (ESI + : methanol-acetonitrile (1∶1) containing 0.1% formic acid, ESI - : acetonitrile) on a BEH C 18 column (100 mm×2.1 mm, 1.7 μm). Quantitative analysis was performed with the aid of matrix-matched curves. When establishing the method, the experimental matrix for optimization was designed by central-composite design based on the response surface methodology. Quadratic polynomial equations were deduced to describe the relationships between the responses and variables, and assess the interaction effects among the variables to acquire the true optimal conditions with less workload. Using the optimum experimental conditions, the accuracy of the proposed method was determined through three-level spiking tests, while the precision was evaluated in terms of the repeatability (six replications per level). Satisfactory precisions (RSDs≤7.5% in chestnut flour and RSDs≤9.3% in wheat flour) were achieved in all tested assays. The recoveries were also acceptable, and ranged from 72.4% to 109.4% for chestnut flour and from 70.7% to 112.9% for wheat flour. The matrix effects of mycotoxins were 48%-128% in wheat flour and 41%-112% in chestnut flour. The detectability of mycotoxins in the two matrices was assessed by spiking the blank extracts with various low concentrations, and determined as the lowest values that can produce chromatographic peaks at a signal-to-noise ratio ( S/N ) of 3∶1. The obtained limits of quantification varied from 0.10 μg/kg to 20 μg/kg (bongkrekic acid) in both investigated matrices. Satisfactory linearities were obtained, with correlation coefficients>0.9991 for all the analytes. After validation, the contamination status of the multiple mycotoxins was evaluated for various concentration ranges. Based on the obtained data, both wheat flour and chestnut flour were severely contaminated, with 17 mycotoxins detected in them. Particularly, chaetoglobosin A, ochratoxin B, and penicillic acid were only detected in chestnut flour, while 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol, and nivalenol were detected in wheat flour. Further, the positive rates and contamination concentrations of chaetoglobosin A, ochratoxin B, and penicillic acid were not significant; hence, they did not qualify as identification markers. On the other hand, the incidence of deoxynivalenol in wheat flour almost reached 100%, which is very significant. Finally, deoxynivalenol and its four derivatives (3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, and nivalenol) were treated as adulteration markers for the two foodstuffs. To improve the reliability of the conclusion, all samples were re-tested using the first method prescribed by the National Food Safety Standard, i. e., GB 5009.111-2016. Ten chestnut flour samples were also randomly selected to prepare moldy samples under suitable environmental conditions for the growth of Fusarium , to verify the production and release of deoxynivalenol and its derivative mycotoxins under the extreme conditions. The distribution data for these mycotoxins were consistent with those obtained by d-SPE, confirming that the adulteration criterion is trustworthy. The established method is simple, rapid, sensitive, and accurate, and can effectively meet the requirements for the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in chestnut flour and wheat flour. Moreover, the adulteration results, which were obtained for natural contaminants (deoxynivalenol and its four derivatives), are less affected by humans and hence, much more accurate and reliable.