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Within the TMEP, we present a detailed study of the performance of different transport models in Sn+Sn collisions at $270A$ MeV, and put particular emphasis on the production of pions and $\Delta$ resonances, which have been used as probes of the nuclear symmetry energy. We prescribe a common and rather simple physics model, and follow in detail the results of 4 BUU models and 6 QMD models. The nucleonic evolution of the collision and the nucleonic observables in these codes do not completely converge, but the differences among the codes can be understood as being due to several reasons: the basic differences between BUU and QMD models in the representation of the phase-space distributions, computational differences in the mean-field evaluation, and differences in the adopted strategies for the Pauli blocking in the collision integrals. For pionic observables, we find that a higher maximum density leads to an enhanced pion yield and a reduced $\pi^-/\pi^+$ yield ratio, while a more effective Pauli blocking generally leads to a slightly suppressed pion yield and an enhanced $\pi^-/\pi^+$ yield ratio. We specifically investigate the effect of the Coulomb force, and find that it increases the total $\pi^-/\pi^+$ yield ratio but reduces the ratio at high pion energies, although differences in its implementations do not have a dominating role in the differences among the codes. Taking into account only the results of codes that strictly follow the homework specifications, we find a convergence of the codes in the final charged pion yield ratio to a $1\sigma$ deviation of about $5\%$. However, the uncertainty is expected to be reduced to about $1.6\%$ if the same or similar strategies and ingredients, i.e., an improved Pauli blocking and calculation of the non-linear term in the mean-field potential, are similarly used in all codes., Comment: 39 pages, 17 figures

The issue of cluster production in heavy-ion collisions is addressed in a new manner, by implementing cluster correlation into the quantum molecular dynamics (QMD) transport model. We demonstrate for the first time, the good potentialities of this popular transport approach in the description of light cluster production including the deuteron, triton, $^{3}$He and $\alpha$ particle in heavy-ion collisions at intermediate energies. Both the INDRA and FOPI experimental data of the total multiplicities of light clusters and the charge distributions of heavier fragments are reasonably reproduced by the unified approach. The effects of both the cluster binding energies and the pauli repulsion are also shown to play crucial roles in the production of clusters., Comment: 8 pages, 4 figures

Within the framework of the quantum molecular dynamics transport model, the collective flows of clusters and pions in heavy-ion collisions have been systematically investigated. The clusters are recognized by the Wigner phase-space density approach at the stage of freeze out in nuclear collisions, i.e., deuteron, triton, $^{3}$He and $\alpha$. The directed and elliptic flows of protons and deuterons in the reaction of $^{197}$Au+$^{197}$Au at incident energy 1.23\emph{A} GeV are nicely consistent with the recent HADES data. The higher order collective flows, i.e., triangular and quadrangle flows, manifest the opposite trends with the less amplitude in comparison with the rapidity distributions of directed and elliptic flows. The flow structure of $^{3}$He and $\alpha$ is very similar to the proton spectra. The influence of the pion potential on the pion production is systematically investigated and compared with the FOPI data via the transverse momentum, longitudinal rapidity and collective flows in collisions of $^{197}$Au + $^{197}$Au. It is manifested that the pion yields are slightly suppressed in the domain of mid-rapidity and high momentum. The antiflow phenomena is reduced by implementing the pion potential and more consistent with the FOPI data in collisions of $^{197}$Au+$^{197}$Au at the incident energy 1.5\emph{A} GeV., Comment: 11 pages, 9 figures. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2302.02131

Within the framework of the quantum molecular dynamics transport model, the pion production and constraint of the high-density symmetry energy in heavy-ion collisions near threshold energy have been thoroughly investigated. The energy conservation in the decay of resonances and reabsorption of pions as well as in the inelastic nucleon-nucleon and nucleon-resonance collisions are taken into account. The isospin diffusion in the low-density region (0.2$\rho_{0}$ - 0.8$\rho_{0}$) and high-density region (1.2$\rho_{0}$ - 1.8$\rho_{0}$) is investigated by analyzing the spectra of neutron/proton and $\pi^{-}/\pi^{+}$ ratios in the isotopic reactions of $^{132}$Sn + $^{124}$Sn and $^{108}$Sn + $^{112}$Sn at the incident energy of 270 MeV/nucleon, in which the symmetry energy manifests the opposite effect in the different density domain. The controversial conclusion of the $\pi^{-}/\pi^{+}$ ratio for constraining the high-density symmetry energy by different transport models with the FOPI data has been clarified. A soft symmetry energy with the slope parameter of $L(\rho_{0}) = 42\pm 25$ MeV by using the standard error analysis within the range of $1\sigma$ is obtained by analyzing the experimental data from the S$\pi$RIT collaboration. The neutron stars with the maximal mass of 2 $M_{\odot}$ and radius of 11-13 km are obtained with the constrained symmetry energy., Comment: 10 pages, 8 figures

Transport models are the main method to obtain physics information from low to relativistic-energy heavy-ion collisions. The Transport Model Evaluation Project (TMEP) has been pursued to test the robustness of transport model predictions in reaching consistent conclusions from the same type of physical model. Calculations under controlled conditions of physical input and set-up were performed with various participating codes. These included both calculations of nuclear matter in a box with periodic boundary conditions, and more realistic calculations of heavy-ion collisions. In this intermediate review, we summarize and discuss the present status of the project. We also provide condensed descriptions of the 26 participating codes, which contributed to some part of the project. These include the major codes in use today. We review the main results of the studies completed so far. They show, that in box calculations the differences between the codes can be well understood and a convergence of the results can be reached. These studies also highlight the systematic differences between the two families of transport codes, known as BUU and QMD type codes. However, when the codes were compared in full heavy-ion collisions using different physical models, as recently for pion production, they still yielded substantially different results. This calls for further comparisons of heavy-ion collisions with controlled models and of box comparisons of important ingredients, like momentum-dependent fields, which are currently underway. We often indicate improved strategies in performing transport simulations and thus provide guidance to code developers. Results of transport simulations of heavy-ion collisions from a given code will have more significance if the code can be validated against benchmark calculations such as the ones summarized in this review., Comment: 114 pages, 14 figures, 479 references, accepted for publication in Progress of Particle and Nuclear Phsics

Within the microscopic transport, systematic investigation of the many facets of hyperons and hypernuclei up to strangeness $S = -2$ are carried out for $^{197}$Au + $^{197}$Au and $^{40}$Ca + $^{40}$Ca at the incident energy of $3A$ GeV. The spatial, temporal and density distributions of hyperon production, absorption and freeze-out are thoroughly investigated. The rapidity and kinetic energy spectra of $\Xi$ hyperons and double $\Lambda$ hypernuclei are analyzed. It is revealed that the chemical balance of hyperon production is established in baryon-baryon channels while the opposite is found in baryon-meson channels. It turns out that the rapidity spectra of $^{4,5}_{\Lambda\Lambda}$X are single-peak and more than two orders of magnitude lower than that of $^{3}_{\Lambda}$H. Formation of double $\Lambda$ hypernuclei through $\Xi$ hypernuclei as intermediate states is also discussed in kinematics., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures

Within the framework of quantum molecular dynamics transport model, the isospin and in-medium effects on the hyperon production in the reaction of $^{197}$Au + $^{197}$Au are investigated thoroughly. A repulsive hyperon-nucleon potential from the chiral effective field theory is implemented into the model, which is related to the hyperon momentum and baryon density. The correction on threshold energy of the elementary hyperon cross section is taken into account. It is found that the $\Sigma$ yields are suppressed in the domain of midrapidity and kinetic energy spectra with the potential. The hyperons are emitted in the reaction plane because of the strangeness exchange reaction and reabsorption process in nuclear medium. The $\Sigma^{-}/\Sigma^{+}$ ratio depends on the stiffness of nuclear symmetry energy, in particular in the high-energy region (above 500 MeV)., Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures

Within the transport model evaluation project (TMEP) of simulations for heavy-ion collisions, the mean-field response is examined here. Specifically, zero-sound propagation is considered for neutron-proton symmetric matter enclosed in a periodic box, at zero temperature and around normal density. The results of several transport codes belonging to two families (BUU-like and QMD-like) are compared among each other and to exact calculations. For BUU-like codes, employing the test particle method, the results depend on the combination of the number of test particles and the spread of the profile functions that weight integration over space. These parameters can be properly adapted to give a good reproduction of the analytical zero-sound features. QMD-like codes, using molecular dynamics methods, are characterized by large damping effects, attributable to the fluctuations inherent in their phase-space representation. Moreover, for a given nuclear effective interaction, they generally lead to slower density oscillations, as compared to BUU-like codes. The latter problem is mitigated in the more recent lattice formulation of some of the QMD codes. The significance of these results for the description of real heavy-ion collisions is discussed.

The dynamics of high-energy proton-induced spallation reactions on target nuclides of $^{136}$Xe, $^{59}$Ni, $^{56}$Fe, $^{208}$Pb, $^{184}$W, $^{181}$Ta, $^{197}$Au and $^{112}$Cd, are investigated with the quantum molecular dynamics transport model. The production mechanism of light nuclides and fission fragments is thoroughly analyzed. The statistical code GEMINI is employed in conjunction to the model for managing the decay of primary fragments. For the treatment of cluster emission during the preequilibrium stage, a surface coalescence model is implemented into the model. It is found that the available data of total cross sections are well reproduced with the combined approach for the spallation reactions on both the heavy and light targets, i.e., $^{56}$Fe and $^{208}$Pb, while it is underestimated in the intermediate-mass-fragment region for the medium-mass target $^{136}$Xe. The energetic clusters are mainly contributed from the preequilibrium recognition, in which the quantum tunneling is taken into account. On the other hand, a fairly well overall description of light cluster and neutron emission is obtained and detailed discrepancies with respect to the experimental results are discussed. Possible modifications on the description of spallation reactions are stressed and compared with both recent experimental and theoretical results in the literature., Comment: 12 pages, 7 figures