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This article revisits the concept of strategic ambiguity to identify and critically assess the overlooked role of international norms. Addressing a significant gap within the existing analysis of strategic ambiguity which fails to fully explain the role of norms, the article demonstrates how international norms construct and function within deliberately ambiguous foreign policy as the normative exploitation of epistemic ambiguity. Yet the article further reveals that strategic ambiguity is then systemically dependent on a precarious overreliance on epistemic ambiguity; this comprises a highly fragile policy framework which is excessively vulnerable to change. The article applies this innovative retheorization to an empirical case-study: United States foreign policy concerning the alleged Russian chemical warfare strategy in Ukraine. This analysis is based on an original and comparative discursive analysis of US administration and institutional public statements drawn primarily from government archives. The new analysis a) identifies US policy as strategic ambiguity and explains the strategy's motivations and perceived benefits; b) shows how an international norm (the chemical weapons taboo) was employed to enact an ambiguous foreign policy; but also, c) demonstrates the intrinsic fragility and potential collapse of this strategic ambiguity as a consequence of normative dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the use of chemical weapons, there is a gradual spontaneous decomposition of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), and only degradation products can be present at the time of sample collection. Depending on the type of parent compound, these are most often acids, alcohols, or thiols. This article deals with the development and optimization of methods for the trimethylsilylation of controlled alcohols that outperforms the currently widely used method with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (BSTFA) prior to gas chromatographic identification. Thiodiglycol (TDG) was chosen as a model alcohol for the development and optimization of methods. Nine trimethylsilylating agents were tested as derivatization agents. For each reagent, the method was optimized in terms of reaction medium (seven tested solvents), reaction time, and temperature. The temporal stability of the resulting derivatives and the effect of the addition of the reaction catalyst were also monitored. Subsequently, optimal methods were applied in the derivatization of N-ethyldiethanolamine, N-methyldiethanolamine, triethanolamine, 2-diisopropylaminoethanol (DIAE), and 3-quinuclidinol. The developed methods were compared in all monitored properties with the standard BSTFA-method (in acetonitrile for 30 min at 60 °C). From the developed methods, three were selected that showed similar or better sensitivity parameters than BSTFA, and at the same time were less demanding to perform. Trimethylsilylation via trimethylsilyl cyanide (TMSCN) appears to be the most successful method. In conclusion, the selected methods were applied in the analysis of contaminated environmental and urban samples – sand, acrylic paint, asphalt-aluminum paint, and concrete. The samples were measured on both a benchtop and a field gas chromatograph. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the potential roles of gangliosides in chemical-induced neurodegenerative diseases and mental health disorders. It emphasizes the importance of environmental factors, particularly toxicants like pesticides, in the development of these illnesses. The article also mentions the use of toxic chemicals as chemical warfare agents and their potential risks to human health. It suggests that gangliosides may play a role in protecting and promoting regeneration of the central nervous system in these diseases and disorders. The article concludes by highlighting the importance of understanding the mechanisms by which chemical agents affect the nervous system and the potential therapeutic strategies involving gangliosides. Additionally, the document provides a list of references for further research on the role of gangliosides in neurological conditions. One of the articles mentioned explores the effects of sarin, a nerve agent, on individuals in Japan, providing insights into the immediate toxicity and long-term effects of sarin exposure. [Extracted from the article]

Trauma and toxic substances are connected in several aspects. On the one hand, toxic substances can be the reason for traumatic injuries in the context of accidental or violent and criminal circumstances. Examples for the first scenario is the release of toxic gases, chemicals, and particles during house fires, and for the second scenario, the use of chemical or biological weapons in the context of terroristic activities. Toxic substances can cause or enhance severe, life-threatening trauma, as described in this review for various chemical warfare, by inducing a tissue trauma accompanied by break down of important barriers in the body, such as the blood-air or the blood-gut barriers. This in turn initiates a "vicious circle" as the contribution of inflammatory responses to the traumatic damage enhances the macro- and micro-barrier breakdown and often results in fatal outcome. The development of sophisticated methods for detection and identification of toxic substances as well as the special treatment of the intoxicated trauma patient is summarized in this review. Moreover, some highly toxic substances, such as the protein toxins from the pathogenic bacterium Clostridioides (C.) difficile, cause severe post-traumatic complications which significantly worsens the outcome of hospitalized patients, in particular in multiply injured trauma patients. Therefore, novel pharmacological options for the treatment of such patients are necessarily needed and one promising strategy might be the neutralization of the toxins that cause the disease. This review summarizes recent findings on the molecular and cellular mechanisms of toxic chemicals and bacterial toxins that contribute to barrier breakdown in the human body as wells pharmacological options for treatment, in particular in the context of intoxicated trauma patients. "trauma-toxicology" comprises concepts regrading basic research, development of novel pharmacological/therapeutic options and clinical aspects in the complex interplay and "vicious circle" of severe tissue trauma, barrier breakdown, pathogen and toxin exposure, tissue damage, and subsequent clinical complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A miniaturized electrochemical sensor was developed for the remote detection of chemical warfare agent (CWA) simulants. To facilitate drone-based remote sensing, this present study focuses on advancing the miniaturized and compact electrochemical sensor for monitoring two CWA simulants, diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) and O,S-diethylmethylphosphonothioate (O,S-DEMPT). The differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) signal was processed, and the DPV signature features were extracted on the basis of the redox properties associated with the absence and the presence of DFP and O,S-DEMPT. Upon the addition of 0.10 equivalence of DFP or O,S-DEMPT, a shift in potential (E) of ~0.13 V was recorded. The limit of detection (LOD) was calculated to be 0.25 µM (0.046 ppm) and 0.10 µM (0.017 ppm) for DFP and O,S-DEMPT, respectively. These results were validated using a portable Palmsens Emstat HR potentiostat, which corroborated the results obtained using a lab benchtop potentiostat. Additionally, Boolean logic ("AND" operation) was implemented for future drone technology deployment. This advancement enables the fabrication of a networked device capable of autonomously executing tasks without constant oversight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Targeted multiple functionalization is a promising tool for developing nanocatalysts for the degradation of toxic organophosphates, present in many agrochemicals and chemical warfare. Herein, we functionalized graphene oxide with two different functional groups (thiol and imidazole), focused on two distinct anchoring sites: epoxide and carboxylic acids. The mono‐ and bifunctionalized materials showed pronounced catalytic activity in the degradation of a toxic organophosphate. This was attributed to cooperative multiple catalyses by the reactive imidazole/thiol groups and neighbouring groups (carboxylate/hydroxyl) on the nanocatalyst backbone. The best nanocatalyst was monofunctionalized via epoxides, which showed the lowest degree of functionalization and highest amount of carboxylic acids. In this case, it could benefit from a bifunctional nucleophilic and general base catalysis involving the thiol and carboxylate groups, respectively. The bifunctionalization strategy via both epoxide and carboxylic acids showed to be better than the analogue bifunctionalized solely via the carboxylic acids, evidencing the importance of the spatial distribution of the anchoring sites. Overall, the functionalization strategy varies the positioning and availability of reactive groups which directly affects the catalytic outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International law has come a long way in outlawing chemical weapon usage during warfare. From the 1907 Hague Convention to the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention, there exists a comprehensive and mostly successful prohibition and verification regime for chemical weapons. However, the advent of modern warfare in recent conflicts in Syria and in Ukraine demonstrates compliance control is severely lacking for this form of weaponry. Consequently, there is no comprehensive accountability framework for international humanitarian law violations in the form of chemical weapon usage. Without explicit language criminalizing it, this heinous form of war crime ends up slipping under the radar. This article explores these jurisdictional gaps in both international and non-international armed conflicts and recommends ways the international community should cement its commitment to penalizing chemical weapon utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space can be limited in reef ecosystems leading to competitive interactions among sessile organisms. Some competitive mechanisms can require physical contact while others operate with proximity between organisms. We investigated how the scleractinian coral Siderastrea stellata and the hydrocoral Millepora alcicornis respond to physical contact and proximity to the macroalga Dictyopteris delicatula and the zoanthid Palythoa caribaeorum, common pairs of interactions in Southwestern Atlantic reefs in Northeast Brazil. We held two colonies of the same species within the same tank, one in physical contact and the other within 5 cm of the competitor for four days with macroalgae and three days with the zoanthid. We monitored the corals for 26 days taking photographs and measuring their photosynthetic efficiency (PE) at the point of contact and on the side where competitors were in proximity. Corals were only affected when physically contacted by the competitors, with the macroalga causing a slight damage on M. alcicornis and almost no effect on S. stellata. Contacts with P. caribaeorum reduced the PE and caused tissue discoloration in both corals. M. alcicornis recovered after 26 days but the contacted areas of S. stellata remained discolored and with low PE. Macroalgae and zoanthids required physical contact to damage corals, with the zoanthid causing more damage than the macroalgae. These results suggest that if local and global stressors make corals weaker competitors (e.g. warming) or favor macroalgae and zoanthid growth (e.g. nutrients), corals could be replaced by either of these organisms affecting ecosystem structure and functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Lung problems can be considered as the most common complication in chemical veterans, therefore strengthening the respiratory system should be emphasized. The purpose of this research was studying the effect of 24 sessions of selected aerobic exercise program on the volumes and lung capacities of chemical veterans. Materials and methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted in 2023 with a pre-test and post-test design. The statistical sample includes 17 chemical warfare veterans with a veteran percentage of 25-35% that were selected by purposive and convenience sampling method and were randomly assigned to two experimental (10 people) and control (7 people) groups. Chemical veterans participated in an interval aerobic exercise program with an intensity of 45-60% of heart rate reserve for eight weeks and three sessions per week. Pulmonary function of the chemical veterans were measured by the Lung Test 1000 spirometry device. Repeated measures statistics was used for comparison of the pre-test and post-test means. Findings: Aerobic exercises significantly increase vital capacity (P=0.007), peak inspiratory flow (P=0.000), peak expiratory flow (P=0.016), forced expiratory volume in 1 second (P=0.017), maximum voluntary ventilation (P=0.000), peak expiratory flow 75% (P=0.000), peak expiratory flow 50% (P=0.001), peak expiratory flow 25% (P=0.007). Also, aerobic exercise had no significant effect on the ratio of forced vital capacity to forced expiratory volume in 1 second (P=0.960) and forced expiratory flow from 25 to 75% (P=0.690). Conclusion: Aerobic exercises in chemical veterans improved lung volumes and capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Diagnosis of small airway disease on computed tomography (CT) scans is challenging in patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure. We developed a software package based on different methodologies to identify and quantify small airway disease in CT images. The primary aim was to identify the best automatic methodology for detecting small airway disease in CT scans of Iran-Iraq War victims of chemical warfare. Methods: This retrospective case–control study enrolled 46 patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure and 27 controls with inspiratory/expiratory (I/E) CT scans and spirometry tests. Image data were automatically segmented, and inspiratory images were registered into the expiratory images' frame using the locally developed software. Parametric response mapping (PRM) and air trapping index (ATI) mapping were performed on the CT images. Conventional QCT methods, including expiratory/inspiratory mean lung attenuation (E/I MLA) ratio, normal density E/I (ND E/I) MLA ratio, attenuation volume Index (AVI), %low attenuation areas (LAA) < -856 in exhale scans, and %LAA < -950 in inhale scans were also computed. QCT measurements were correlated with spirometry results and compared across the two study groups. Results: The correlation analysis showed a significant negative relationship between three air trapping (AT) measurements (PRM, ATI, and %LAAExp < -856) and spirometry parameters (Fev1, Fvc, Fev1/Fvc, and MMEF). Moreover, %LAAExp < -856 had the highest significant negative correlation with Fev1/Fvc (r = -0.643, P-value < 0.001). Three AT measurements demonstrated a significant difference between the study groups. The E/I ratio was also significantly different between the two groups (P-value < 0.001). Binary logistic regression models showed PRMFsad, %LAAExp < -856, and ATI as significant and strong predictors of the study outcome. Optimal cut-points for PRMFsad = 19%, %LAAExp < -856 = 23%, and ATI = 27% were identified to classify the participants into two groups with high accuracy. Conclusion: QCT methods, including PRM, ATI, and %LAAExp < -856 can greatly advance the identification and quantification of SAD in chemical warfare victims. The results should be verified in well-designed prospective studies involving a large population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical warfare agents (CWAs) have brought great threats to human life and social stability, and it is critical to investigate protective materials. MOF (metal–organic framework) gels are a class with an extended MOF architecture that are mainly formed using metal–ligand coordination as an effective force to drive gelation, and these gels combine the unique characteristics of MOFs and organic gel materials. They have the advantages of a hierarchically porous structure, a large specific surface area, machinable block structures and rich metal active sites, which inherently meet the requirements for adsorption and catalytic detoxification of CWAs. A series of advances have been made in the adsorption and catalytic detoxification of MOF gels as chemical warfare agents; however, overall, they are still in their infancy. This review briefly introduces the latest advances in MOF gels, including pure MOF gels and MOF composite gels, and discusses the application of MOF gels in the adsorption and catalytic detoxification of CWAs. Meanwhile, the influence of microstructures (pore structures, metal active site, etc.) on the detoxification performance of protective materials is also discussed, which is of great significance in the exploration of high-efficiency protective materials. Finally, the review looks ahead to next priorities. Hopefully, this review can inspire more and more researchers to enrich the performance of MOF gels for applications in chemical protection and other purification and detoxification processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Iraq used chemical weapons in the war with Iran, in military and civilian areas. Due to the long-term effects of these weapons, Considering over 35 years after this eight-year war, the number of chemical warfare victims is increasing. This research aimed to investigate the spatial distribution of chemical warfare victims by province. Instrument & Methods This descriptive-analytical research study was done using data obtained from the General Department of Statistics and Information Technology of the Martyr and Veteran Affairs Foundation. The data of chemical casualties includes the number; place of residence, gender, and type of injury in 2021 that were analyzed using SPSS 20 and ArcGIS software and Moran's test. Findings The total number of veterans in 2021 was 601330; 10.7% of them were chemical victims. Tehran (11%), Isfahan (9.67%), and Khorasan-Razavi (6.92%) provinces had the highest, and Hormozgan (0.39%), South-Khorasan (0.66%), and Sistan & Baluchistan (0.77% provinces) had the lowest. The spatial distribution of chemical warfare victims showed a cluster pattern. Conclusion The consequences of Iraq's use of chemical weapons can be seen in all of Iran's provinces, and all provinces have chemical victims. Tehran, Isfahan, Khorasan Razavi, Kerman, West-Azerbaijan, and Khuzestan have more chemical victims than other provinces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The destruction of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) is a crucial area of research due to the ongoing evolution of toxic chemicals. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), a class of porous crystalline solids, have emerged as promising materials for this purpose. Their remarkable porosity and large surface areas enable superior adsorption, reactivity, and catalytic abilities, making them ideal for capturing and decomposing target species. Moreover, the tunable networks of MOFs allow customization of their chemical functionalities, making them practicable in personal protective equipment and adjustable to dynamic environments. This review paper focuses on experimental and computational studies investigating the removal of CWAs by MOFs, specifically emphasizing the removal of nerve agents (GB, GD, and VX) via hydrolysis and sulfur mustard (HD) via selective photooxidation. Among the different MOFs, zirconium-based MOFs exhibit extraordinary structural stability and reusability, rendering them the most promising materials for the hydrolytic and photooxidative degradation of CWAs. Accordingly, this work primarily concentrates on exploring the intrinsic catalytic reaction mechanisms in Zr-MOFs through first-principles approximations, as well as the design of efficient degradation strategies in the aqueous and solid phases through the establishment of Zr-MOF structure–property relationships. Recent progress in the tuning and functionalization of MOFs is also examined, aiming to enhance practical CWA removal under realistic battlefield conditions. By providing a comprehensive overview of experimental findings and computational insights, this review paper contributes to the advancement of MOF-based strategies for the destruction of CWAs and highlights the potential of these materials to address the challenges associated with chemical warfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a chemical produced from the burning of sulfur-containing materials, has a long history in chemical warfare. While it was largely used during ancient sieges, there were numerous proposals to weaponize it for the open battlefield in the early modern age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The book "Holding Their Breath: How the Allies Confronted the Threat of Chemical Warfare in World War II" by M. Girard Dorsey explores why chemical warfare was not widely used by the Allies during the Second World War. The author, a historian at the University of New Hampshire, examines the diplomatic and political factors that led to the avoidance of gas warfare, despite the potential for its use. The book highlights the influence of international agreements, military alliances, and national behavior in shaping the decision not to deploy chemical weapons. While the study has some methodological limitations, it provides valuable insights into the historical context and moral considerations surrounding chemical warfare during the war. [Extracted from the article]

Insects have adapted to a multitude of environmental conditions, including the presence of xenobiotic noxious substances. Environmental microorganisms, particularly rich on ephemeral resources, employ these noxious chemicals in a chemical warfare against predators and competitors, driving co‐evolutionary adaptations. In order to analyse how environmental microbes may be driving such evolutionary adaptations, we experimentally evolved Drosophila melanogaster populations by exposing larvae to the toxin‐producing mould Aspergillus nidulans that infests the flies' breeding substrate. To disentangle the effects of the mycotoxin Sterigmatocystin from other substrate modifications inflicted by the mould, we used the following four selection regimes: (i) control without fungus, (ii) A. nidulans wild type, (iii) a mutant of A. nidulans ΔlaeA with impaired toxin production, (iv) synthetic Sterigmatocystin. Experimental evolution was carried out in five independent D. melanogaster populations each, for a total of 11 generations. We further combined our evolution experiment with transcriptome analysis to identify evolutionary shifts in gene expression due to the selection regimes and mould confrontation. Populations that evolved in presence of the toxin‐producing mould or the pure mycotoxin rapidly adapted to the respective conditions and showed higher viability in subsequent confrontations. Yet, mycotoxin‐selected populations had no advantage in A. nidulans wild type confrontation. Moreover, distinctive changes in gene expression related to the selection‐regime contrast were only associated with the toxin‐producing‐fungus regime and comprised a narrow set of genes. Thus, it needs the specific conditions of the selection agent to enable adaptation to the fungus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rich land of Erythrae in the coast of Asia Minor attracted the attention of the Ionian king Codrus. An oracle demanded the presence of the murky deity Hecate for him to conquer the city. Priestess Chrysame was sent by Thessalians to set the strategy of the clash. The young sorceress poisoned a sacred bull who turned mad, later to be released toward the camp of Erythraeans. The beast was captured and sacrificed. In the feast that followed, all ate a piece of his flesh and went crazy, stimulated by the poison, an easy prey for the army of Codrus. The deleterium used by Chrysame is unknown, but her strategy shaped the origin of biowarfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Restless legs syndrome (RLS) has been associated with a variety of diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which can worsen the symptoms of underlying disease and correlates with co-morbidities. We aimed to investigate RLS in patients with chemical warfare-induced lung diseases. METHODS: This cross-sectional study recruited patients with sulfur mustard (SM) lung injury, their healthy family members, and patients with COPD from August 2018 to August 2019. COPD was confirmed by medical history, physical examination, and spirometry according to GOLD COPD guidelines. RLS diagnosis was recognized by the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG) and severity was assessed using the International Restless Legs Scale (IRLS) rating scale. Other research measures were COPD Assessment Test (CAT), modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) scale for dyspnoea severity, and Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) for daytime somnolence. Laboratory values included hemoglobin, ferritin, creatinine, and fibrinogen. RESULTS: This study was conducted on 143 men in three groups: 40 (30.0%) SM-exposed veterans, 73 (55.3%) patients with COPD, and 30 (20.9%) healthy cases. Due to the high prevalence of COPD and better comparison with the control group, more patients with COPD were selected. 20 cases (50%) of the veterans group had RLS, while 25 (32.9%) cases of COPD were affected by this disorder. One normal case (3.33%) suffered from RLS. The chemical veterans who suffered from cough, sputum production, chest pain, and hemoptysis had a higher incidence in proportion to patients with COPD (P < 0.001). The CAT score was significantly higher in SM-exposed veterans with RLS (P = 0.004). CONCLUSION: RLS is more common in SM lung injuries with higher CAT scores; therefore, evaluation and treatment of RLS are recommended in mustard lung victims.

The prosecution of the crimes of the Imperial Japanese Army's Unit 731 are often compared to the prosecution of the crimes of the Nazi doctors. These comparisons emphasize immunity for the Japanese, whereas the Nazis were prosecuted for their actions. However, this comparison is an inaccurate one. While both trials look similar on the surface, their composition, scope, and framework were different. Conscious of the fact they were establishing international criminal precedent, the United States' case against the Nazi doctors relied on military chain of command to prove strong legal responsibility for human experimentation crimes. In contrast, the United States avoided prosecuting Unit 731 because they could not replicate the same clear legal framework used to successfully prosecute the Nazis. The Soviet Union recognized the strategic implications of the United States' decision not to try Unit 731 and saw an opportunity to strike a moral blow, not only by convicting Japanese military members at the Khabarovsk Trial, but also by immediately publishing the court's proceedings internationally. Rather than focusing on the morality of who was punished by whom, understanding the military structures as identified through these different court proceedings could enable prevention of crimes against humanity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novichok is the name given to the group of nerve agents created stealthily in the later phases of the Cold War by the Soviet Union. Constitute the fourth generation of chemical warfare agents; like other nerve agents, they are organophosphorus compounds designed to be incurable and undetectable. The mechanism of action is based on the non-competitive and irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Due to their enormous toxicity, Novichoks have become attractive targets for terrorists. However, little information is known about the identity of nerve agents. Furthermore, these compounds have never been submitted to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Our article aspires to provide a general overview of Novichoks knowledge. As part of this, we reviewed the available literature data to answer the question, what are Novichoks? In addition to the physical and chemical properties of A-agents, synthesis, mechanism of action, and toxicity of nerve agents were also reviewed. We hope that this review will highlight the tremendous threat posed by nerve agents and will inspire further studies on the interdisciplinary aspects of these compounds. Highlights: Novichoks, an extremely life-threatening nerve agents. General overview of the information on Novichoks: physical and chemical properties, mechanism of action and toxicity data. Novichoks should be treated as a separate group of chemical warfare compounds due to their hazardous properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Hospitals are often the front line in dealing with incidents. With the technological trends and threats of Chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiation (CBRN) incidents, considering future wars and the risk of community epidemics and complex threats in the field of CBRN, the importance of the issue has doubled. The most rational way to manage a potential danger is having sufficient preparation in the face of critical situations, this, however, requires scientific models. Therefore, the aim of this study was to, first, look at the level of preparedness of emergency rooms to respond to CBRN incidents and, second, to construct a multi-purpose model of hospitals' general emergency in CBRN conditions. Methods: This study was a narrative review. The statistical population included available documents and articles about CBRN emergencies between January 2000 and April 2022. Document review tools were used to aggregate documents related to general emergency, trauma, chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiation. Validation was done by searching reliable Persian and English scientific databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Magiran, IranMedex and Google Scholar. Also, for reliability testing, a comparative study of documents was performed. The keywords "General Emergency", "Trauma Emergency", "Chemical Emergency", "Biological Emergency", "Nuclear Emergency", and "Radiation Emergency" and their Persian equivalents were utilized. Then it was analyzed using the Prisma checklist. Results: Considering the entry and exit criteria, a total of 22 articles from 7 countries; Iran (10), America (5), Canada (3), Great Britain (1), Belgium (1), Australia (1), and Hong Kong (1) were evaluated. The results of the research indicated that the most important success factor against CBRN incidents in the emergency department is the anticipation and preparation of necessary measures. The findings of the present study according to the documents, articles, and the subsequent comparison of their common factors and also using the indicators of international organizations in the field of crisis management indicated that there are 6 axes in the field of CBRN emergency. The axes are namely; 1. Design of the emergency department, 2. Medicines and required equipment, 3. Required staff, 4. Education and training of staff, 5. Structure and organization, 6. Processes and instructions. Conclusion: Studies have been conducted and the analyzes performed based on the axes showed that many organizations and countries do not use a specific model to deal with CBRN incidents. It can be said that most hospitals, except for the hospitals that have a dedicated emergency room for one of the CBRN agents, are not prepared to manage such incidents. In this regard, developing a comprehensive CBRN crisis management model including the dimensions of human resources, structure and organization, physical space, instructions and processes, and equipment is of particular importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has become increasingly important to monitor environment contamination by such chemicals as chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and industrial toxic chemicals (TICs), as well as radiation hazards around and inside collective protection facilities. This is especially important given the increased risk of terrorist or military attacks. The Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry (MICR) has constructed and developed the ALERT device for the effective monitoring of these threats. This device uses sensors that detect chemical and radiological contaminations in the air. The CWA detector is an ion mobility spectrometer, TICs are detected by electrochemical sensors, and radiation hazards are detected via Geiger–Muller tubes. The system was designed to protect the crew from contamination. When chemical or radioactive contamination is detected at the air inlet for the shelter, air filtration through a carbon filter is activated. At this time, the air test procedure at the filter outlet is started to test the condition of the filter on an ongoing basis. After detecting contamination at the filter outlet, the system turns off the air pumping and the service can start the procedure of replacing the damaged carbon filter. This paper presents the results of laboratory testing of the ALERT gas alarm detector, which showed high measurements for important parameters, including sensitivity, repeatability, accuracy, and speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Chemically injured veterans are very vulnerable because of their special situation, and they may confront numerous difficulties. Body composition is one of the effective factors in mental health in adults. So, this study aimed to survey the correlation between body composition and body mass index with mental health and sleepiness in chemically injured veterans. Instruments & Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted on chemical veterans referred to the rheumatology ward in Karaj province. 131 patients were selected through the available sampling method. The body composition and body mass index of veterans were determined, and General Health Questionnaire and Epworth Sleepiness Scale were answered. Data were analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient by SPSS 19 software. Findings There was a significant correlation between body fat percent and fat mass with total general health (p=0.004). The correlation between body composition and sleepiness was not significant (p>0.05). There was no significant correlation between body mass index with mental health and sleepiness (p>0.05). Conclusion Body composition, particularly fat percent and fat mass, is associated with general health in chemically injured veterans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of modern chemical weapons and chemical warfare is traditionally associated with World War I, but the use of poisons in the military has its roots deep in the past. The sources of these poisons have always been natural agents that also served as medicines. This relationship between poison and medicine, and nowadays between chemical warfare and medicine, or between 'military chemistry' and pharmacy, appears to be very important for understanding not only the history but also the possible future of both phenomena. This article looks at some historical examples of the use of drugs as chemical weapons and, conversely, the use of chemical weapons as medicines. It seeks to find answers to some questions that are particularly relevant to the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which aims to achieve a world without chemical warfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The unprovoked invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation has resulted in the largest humanitarian crisis in Europe since World War II. As fighting intensifies throughout Ukraine, there is an increasing concern that the Russian Federation may consider the direct use of chemical or radiological weapons against military personnel and civilians in Ukraine. Despite prohibition of chemical weapons from the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1997, recent evidence has demonstrated that state actors will continue to use these agents as weapons of war and terror, despite publicly denying their use. We review chemical weapons produced and used by the Russian Federation (or its allies) to identify plausible risks in the Russian war in Ukraine. We also provide rapid assessment and treatment guidelines to recognize and manage these acute exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

VX is one of the chemical warfare agents that attack victims' nervous systems and ultimately lead to their death. Upon VX exposure, circulating proteins in the bloodstream can be modified with VX that may produce diagnostic VX adducts. Thus, these adducts would be key evidence for the forensic investigation against chemical warfare or terrorism. In this study, we discovered a list of potential blood protein biomarkers for VX exposure. To do so, we employed high‐resolution mass spectrometry‐based proteomics and identified 18 VX‐adducted proteins with 32 adduct sites from VX‐treated human plasma samples. Furthermore, we examined these targets using a data‐independent acquisition method and obtained eight practically detectable biomarkers. Our results may serve as a valuable resource for verifying nerve agent exposure under chemical attack. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical weapons are a diverse range of substances that can be used to cause intentional death or harm through their toxic properties. They include nerve agents, vesicants, lung-damaging agents, cyanide, biological toxins, and riot control agents, as well as emerging threats such as the highly potent opioid carfentanil. Although infrequent, chemical weapons casualties can and have presented to civilian hospitals as the result of terrorist attacks, assassination attempts, and accidental exposure. Recognition of the potential chemical casualty is required to initiate specific treatment and appropriate personal protective measures. However, this is made challenging by a low index of suspicion, unclear history of exposure, limitations of field-testing equipment, and variable presentations that may be confounded by psychological symptoms, physical injuries, hyperthermia from personal protective equipment (PPE), and the side effects of antidotes. This article gives a brief overview of how to identify and manage chemical incidents, the toxicology, symptomatology, and treatment of a selected number of chemical agents. Further detail can be found in the listed references. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The new descriptive models are developed to describe various roll-up and stepwise 1.1.1.2-Tetrafluoroethane breakthrough curves. • A new method is built up to predict 1.1.1.2-Tetrafluoroethane breakthrough curves under higher moisture content. Gas mask and filter adsorber designs are mainly determined by the accurate breakthrough time calculated by fitting descriptive models to breakthrough curves in military chemistry. Currently, in most practical environments, the highly toxic fluoride gas/vapor breakthrough curves with roll-up and/or stepwise breakthrough structures in the C / C 0 < 1.0 range usually occur, which is induced by the existence of pre-adsorbed water vapor. Common and easily modified descriptive breakthrough models have a significant shortcoming in that they are not able to simultaneously fit the above complex breakthrough curves and explain gas desorption, enhanced adsorption again, and stepwise adsorption in the competitive adsorption process. This study adapts three modified descriptive models by introducing a dimensionless breakthrough coefficient to fit roll-up and stepwise 1.1.1.2-Tetrafluoroethane (R134a) breakthrough curves under humid conditions. Results reveal that correlation coefficients between the model and R134a breakthrough data are higher than 0.98, demonstrating that the novel adaptation successfully accounted for R134a desorption, enhanced R134a adsorption again, and R134a stepwise adsorption without significantly increasing the complexity of implementing the models. Further, through relationship curves between fitting parameters and moisture contents, R134a breakthrough curves on activated carbons under a wider moisture content range were successfully predicted. It will greatly reduce the cost of toxic experimentation and improve experimental safety factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • ESIPT based fluorescent chemodosimeter for swift detection of triphosgene. • Highly selective fluorescence quenching response with triphosgene in solution and vapour phase. • The response was quick and sensitive with a response time of 20 s and LOD of 1.3 ppb. • Eco-friendly test strips yield reliable detection of phosgene vapour with distinct fluorescence change. • Real-time application demonstrated by monitoring spillage in soil sample by a reliable test strip. We have developed a glowing fluorescent chemodosimeter that utilizes excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) through a one-step synthesis process. This innovative chemodosimeter exhibited remarkable selectivity and sensitivity in detecting triphosgene, achieving a limit of detection (LOD) of 41 nM. The strong fluorescence of this probe at 504 nm was significantly quenched by triphosgene. This phenomenon is attributed to the formation of a new adduct upon the addition of guest, which restricts the ESIPT process and ultimately completely extinguishes the fluorescence. Furthermore, we have successfully extended the utility of this probe to determine trace amounts of triphosgene in soil samples of varying composition in solution and strip-based experiments. Notably, our chemodosimeter demonstrates effectiveness across a spectrum of soil types, detecting micromolar levels of triphosgene in complex soil matrices with a LOD of 1.59 µM. the promising sensing of triphosgene in complex soil system hold potential detection of extremely toxic chemical warfare presence in the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of ocular injured induced by mustard gas can help better identify complications and discover appropriate therapies. This study aimed to analyze the proteomics of tears of chemical warfare victims with mustard gas ocular injuries and compare it with healthy individuals. In this case-control research, 10 mustard gas victims with long-term ocular difficulties (Chronic) were included in the patient group, while 10 healthy persons who were age and sex matched to the patients were included in the control group. Schirmer strips were used to collect the tears of the participants. Proteomics experiments were performed using the high-efficiency TMT10X method to evaluate the tear protein profile, and statistical bioinformatics methods were used to identify the differently expressed proteins. 24 proteins had different expressions between the two groups. Among these 24 proteins, 8 proteins had increased expression in veterans' tears, while the remaining 16 proteins had decreased expression. Reactome pathways were used to look at proteins with various expressions, and 13 proteins were found to be engaged in the immune system, 9 of which were effective in the innate immune system, and 5 proteins were effective in the complement cascade. Ocular mustard gas exposure may cause a compromised immune system on the eye's surface, exposing the cornea to external and endogenous infections, and eventually causing corneal opacity and reduced vision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joined to the Hawaiian Islands by ocean currents and winds, Kalama Atoll (named Johnston by the United States) emerges from the sea 825 miles southwest of Honolulu. Over a period of 165 years, in furtherance of the U.S. imperial project, Kalama has been rendered both conservation frontier and island laboratory for an extraordinary amount of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. This article examines U.S. imperial governance at Kalama, an unincorporated U.S. territory, and how military ruination of Kalama has produced new military natures that call for observation and protection. Introducing a rubric of "conservation by ruination," we highlight how a coalescing of toxic destruction and conservation efforts functions as a continuous geopolitical claim to the atoll, and how imperial formations at the atoll are weaved through technoscientific and multispecies assemblages. In essence, what is conserved in conservation by ruination is not wildlife, habitats, or nature, but empire itself. Kalama is a post-apocalyptic cyborg assemblage of bleached coral skeletons and radioactive debris, dioxin-laden leachate and crazy ants; a cacophonous ecology of weathered concrete and rusted metal, inhabited by seabirds and steadily dissolving into the sea. But it is also an atoll that remains connected to the islands and peoples of Oceania, and which is neither lost, small, isolated, or ruined. We therefore end the article by speculating on restoration of this atoll whose imperial formations capture not only its spaces, but also its futures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resistance of military clothing to oil permeation is important for effective protection against chemical warfare. In this paper, while a military textile is rendered oleophobic (oil contact angle ≈ 120°) through plasma-assisted deposition of perfluorodecyl acrylate (PFAC8), permeation of the textile by silicon oil is observed. Using high-definition digital imaging, we study the oil permeation dynamics, rationalize the permeation with a plausible mechanism and identify the threshold textile pore size for prevention of the permeation. We find that oil permeates defects of PFAC8 textiles. Our data suggests a linear variation for oil permeation volume ΔV with time t and implies a gravity-driving permeation mechanism. The mechanism comprises three stages involving merging and propagation of oil–yarn contact lines. The threshold pore size dm scales with σ/ P, where σ is the oil surface tension and P is the hydrostatic head exerted by the oil drop. The paper indicates the importance of an undamaged textile structure to 'robust' oil resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The retropepsin (PR) of the Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) plays, as in other retroviruses, a crucial role in the transition from the non-infective viral particle to the infective virion by processing the polyprotein Gag. PR is expressed as an immature precursor associated with Gag, after an occasional −1 ribosomal frameshifting event. Self-hydrolysis of PR at specific N- and C-terminal sites releases the monomer that dimerizes giving rise to the active protease. We designed a strategy to express BLV PR in E. coli as a fusion protein with maltose binding protein, with a six-histidine tag at its N-terminal end, and bearing a tobacco etch virus protease hydrolysis site. This allowed us to obtain soluble and mature recombinant PR in relatively good yields, with exactly the same amino acid composition as the native protein. As PR presents relative promiscuity for the hydrolysis sites we designed four fluorogenic peptide substrates based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) in order to characterize the activity of the recombinant enzyme. These substrates opened the way to perform kinetic studies, allowing us to characterize the dimer-monomer equilibrium. Furthermore, we obtained kinetic evidence for the existence of a conformational change that enables the interaction with the substrate. These results constitute a starting point for the elucidation of the kinetic properties of BLV-PR, and may be relevant not only to improve the chemical warfare against this virus but also to better understand other viral PRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• Contributes to conceptual understandings of the sociotechnical landscape. • Empirical study of the understudied role of war in sociotechnical transitions. • Novel insights of multi systemic change between food and military systems. • Outlines the implications of these insights for sustainability transitions research. This paper addresses a major gap in sustainability transitions research: the role of shocks in shaping transition dynamics. The papers focuses on shocks with traumatic consequences, in particular World War I and II. The paper revisits discussions on the sociotechnical landscape in the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and Deep Transition framework, offering refined versions of the concepts of systemic and landscape imprinting. It proceeds with a case-study analysis focusing on niche developments during WWI in relation to chemicals and the emergence of chemical warfare, and the lasting impact this shock had on interwar developments, WWII and the post-WWII context. The collective memories of the use of chemical weapons during war and expectations around future use of chemical weapons formed a new backdrop that influenced developments in the food system. Here, food became more tightly intertwined with military imperatives related to preparations regarding the use of chemical and biological weapons. This paper contributes to emerging understandings of how landscape shocks influence sociotechnical change, in particular how these shocks can lead to long lasting tight couplings between socio-technical systems. Two broader research recommendations follow from it. First, more work is needed on the neglected role of war and the military in sociotechnical transitions. Second, in terms of contemporary sustainability challenges, research could consider how landscape events - including the coronavirus pandemic, events related to dramatic biodiversity losses and the climate crisis as well as the traumatic experience of poverty traps and steep rising inequality - may produce trauma and new forms of shared meaning and expectations that impinge on sociotechnical change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]